An investigation of stigma in individuals receiving treatment for substance abuse
Abstract
This study examined the impact of stigma on patients in substance abuse treatment. Patients (N=197) from fifteen residential and outpatient substance abuse treatment facilities completed a survey focused on their experiences with stigma as well as other measures of drug use and functioning. Participants reported experiencing fairly high levels of enacted, perceived, and self-stigma. Data supported the idea that the current treatment system may actually stigmatize people in recovery in that people with more prior episodes of treatment reported a greater frequency of stigma-related rejection, even after controlling for current functioning and demographic variables. Intravenous drug users, compared to non-IV users, reported more perceived stigma as well as more often using secrecy as a method of coping. Those who were involved with the legal system reported less stigma than those without legal troubles. Higher levels of secrecy coping were associated with a number of indicators of poor functioning as well as recent employment problems. Finally, the patterns of findings supported the idea that perceived stigma, enacted stigma, and self-stigma are conceptually distinct dimensions.
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People who inject drugs face widespread stigma related to their substance use.
“In addition to HIV stigma, the key population of people who inject drugs also faces widespread stigma related to their substance use.4”
From An acceptance-based, intersectional stigma coping intervention for people with HIV who inject drugs—a randomized clinical trial (2023) · cites this paper as [4]
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“This is particularly concerning in light of evidence that patients who feel stigmatized by providers have poor treatment outcomes [61, 62].”
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“, where a person is actively discriminated against [22], this participant may have perceived stigma [22,57] because of the negative thoughts and feelings associated with an expectation of stigma and discrimination e.”
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“Substance use disorders are highly stigmatised, with several studies reporting that these disorders are more stigmatised than other physical [6-8] and mental disorders [9-12].”
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“It was also found that experiences of rejection and anticipation of discrimination were prevalent among individuals in treatment for SUDs (Luoma et al., 2007).”
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“For example, problematic drinking leads to increased levels of shame, 43 but it is known that experiential avoidance mediates the impact of shame on self-destructive behaviors, 44 presumably because it is not possible to be open to and to use this emotion to guide healthy behavior change if it must be avoided.”
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“This set of conditions, in addition to general stigma surrounding addiction diagnosis and treatment (Luoma et al., 2007), make it especially important that the individual have ample time to discuss and process the experience with their therapists, who form a temporary yet invaluable support network.”
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“The most frequently reported social barrier to treatment entry is the stigma associated with being labelled as an illicit drug user and associated concerns over privacy [2,20,21,27,30].”
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“Finally, the relation between sterile syringe source access and lower mean stigma scores may be explained by PWID perceiving discrimination due to their drug use or feeling ashamed of their use which in turn has been associated with feeling as though they should “hide” their drug use (Luoma et al., 2007).”
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“People with SUDs frequently encounter enacted stigma (17,18).”
BackgroundSelf-citationLatkin, C. A., Davey-Rothwell, M. A., Yang, J.-Y., & Crawford, N. D. (2012) · Journal of Urban Health · doi:10.1007/s11524-012-9753-z · Cited by 90 · see citing works
“In a study of stigma of drug use treatment, injection drug users, as compared to noninjectors, reported greater levels of drug treatment stigma.(32) Stigma is a multifaceted construct involving prejudice, stereotypes, and discrimination and can be experiences as enacted, anticipated, and internalized.”
BackgroundIf One Doesn’t Get You Another One Will
LeBel, T. P. (2011) · The Prison Journal · doi:10.1177/0032885511429243 · Cited by 89 · see citing works
“…HIV/AIDS (Berger, Ferrans, & Lashley, 2001), individuals suffering from substance use problems (Link, Struening, Rahav, Phelan, & Nuttbrock, 1997; Luoma et al., 2007; Young, Stuber, Ahern, & Galea, 2005), persons living with physical disabilities (Hebl & Kleck, 2000; Taub, McLorg, & Fanflik,…”
Yang, L. H., Grivel, M. M., Anderson, B. J., Bailey, G. L., Opler, M. G. A., Wong, L. Y., & Stein, M. D. (2019) · Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment · doi:10.1016/j.jsat.2019.01.005 · Cited by 88 · see citing works
“greater prior episodes of substance abuse treatment (Luoma et al., 2007).”
BackgroundUnderstanding public stigma toward substance dependence
Janulis, P. F., Ferrari, J. R., & Fowler, P. J. (2013) · Journal of Applied Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/jasp.12070 · Cited by 86 · see citing works
“Furthermore, individuals in treatment for substance abuse often report the highest levels of perceived stigma and stigma-related rejection (Luoma et al., 2007; Semple, Grant, & Patterson, 2005).”
BackgroundStigmatization of people with addiction by health professionals: Current knowledge. A scoping review
Cazalis, A., Lambert, L., & Auriacombe, M. (2023) · Drug and Alcohol Dependence Reports · doi:10.1016/j.dadr.2023.100196 · Cited by 92 · see citing works
“Social stigma or self-stigma reduces access and adherence to care for those in need for care (Crapanzano et al., 2019; Cunningham et al., 1993; Luoma et al., 2007; Mojtabai et al., 2014; Probst et al., 2015).”
BackgroundPalamar, J., Kiang, M., & Halkitis, P. (2011) · Substance Use & Misuse · doi:10.3109/10826084.2011.596606 · Cited by 79 · see citing works
“Similarly, existing stigma measures have mainly assessed devaluation of drug users in treatment or attitudes about “addicts” (Luoma et al., 2007).”
BackgroundMethodLevin, M. E., Luoma, J. B., Lillis, J., Hayes, S. C., & Vilardaga, R. (2013) · Journal of Contextual Behavioral Science · doi:10.1016/j.jcbs.2013.11.003 · Cited by 80 · see citing works
“…of countless numbers of individuals belonging to groups such as racial minorities (Williams & Mohammed, 2009), sexual minorities (Meyer, 2003), the obese (Puhl & Heuer, 2009), substance abusers (Luoma et al., 2007), and individuals with mental health problems (Rüsch, Angermeyer, & Corrigan, 2005).”
BackgroundSelf-citationSelf-Forgiveness, Shame, and Guilt in Recovery from Drug and Alcohol Problems
McGaffin, B. J., Lyons, G. C. B., & Deane, F. P. (2013) · Substance Abuse · doi:10.1080/08897077.2013.781564 · Cited by 78 · see citing works
“Acceptance (30) is theorized to address the shame and stigma inherent in problematic substance use (3, 31).”
BackgroundBrem, M. J., Shorey, R. C., Anderson, S. T., & Stuart, G. L. (2017) · Mindfulness · doi:10.1007/s12671-017-0723-0 · Cited by 77 · see citing works
“AUDIT and DUDIT scores were entered as covariates given the relation between these constructs and shame (Luoma et al. 2007).”
InfluentialHoover, K., Lockhart, S., Callister, C., Holtrop, J. S., & Calcaterra, S. L. (2021) · Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment · doi:10.1016/j.jsat.2021.108708 · Cited by 76 · see citing works
Deering, D., Sheridan, J. L., Sellman, J. D., Adamson, S. J., Pooley, S., Robertson, R., & Henderson, C. (2011) · Addictive Behaviors · doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2011.01.004 · Cited by 76 · see citing works
Narrative identity, rationality, and microdosing classic psychedelics
Webb, M. E., Copes, H., & Hendricks, P. S. (2019) · International Journal of Drug Policy · doi:10.1016/j.drugpo.2019.04.013 · Cited by 75 · see citing works
Glass, J. E., Mowbray, O. P., Link, B. G., Kristjansson, S. D., & Bucholz, K. K. (2013) · Drug and Alcohol Dependence · doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2013.08.016 · Cited by 73 · see citing works
Internalized Stigma Among People Who Inject Drugs
Cama, E. J., Brener, L., Wilson, H., & von Hippel, C. (2016) · Substance Use & Misuse · doi:10.1080/10826084.2016.1188951 · Cited by 71 · see citing works
“Perceiving or experiencing stigma and discrimination can negatively impact a range of psychosocial outcomes, resulting in poorer mental and physical health (Ahern, Stuber, & Galea, 2007; Tindal et al., 2010) and health care avoidance (Luoma et al., 2007).”
BackgroundPaquette, C. E., & Pollini, R. A. (2018) · Drug and Alcohol Dependence · doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2018.03.049 · Cited by 71 · see citing works
“A growing number of studies document the marginalization of PWID from society in general (e.g., Capitanio and Herek, 1999) and health services in particular (e.g., Ding et al., 2005; Etesam et al., 2014; Luoma et al., 2007), raising concerns about the generalizability of existing findings.”
Education in Prison and the Self-Stigma: Empowerment Continuum
Evans, D. N., Pelletier, E. K., & Szkola, J. (2017) · Crime & Delinquency · doi:10.1177/0011128717714973 · Cited by 72 · see citing works
“employment, housing, or other resources (Evans & Porter, 2015; Luoma et al., 2007; Pager, 2003).”
BackgroundSubstance use and shame: A systematic and meta-analytic review
Luoma, J. B., Chwyl, C., & Kaplan, J. (2019) · Clinical Psychology Review · doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2019.03.002 · Cited by 88 · see citing works
Self-citationJob loss discrimination and former substance use disorders
Baldwin, M. L., Marcus, S. C., & Simone, J. D. (2010) · Drug and Alcohol Dependence · doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2010.01.018 · Cited by 67 · see citing works
“Persons with former substance use disorders may, however, still experience adverse employment outcomes because of discrimination or stigma (Luoma et al., 2007).”
BackgroundPsychological inflexibility and stigma: A meta-analytic review
Krafft, J., Ferrell, J., Levin, M. E., & Twohig, M. P. (2018) · Journal of Contextual Behavioral Science · doi:10.1016/j.jcbs.2017.11.002 · Cited by 76 · see citing works
“…et al., 2011; Luoma et al., 2013); perceived stigma related to substance use (Luoma et al., 2007; Luoma et al., 2008); stigma-related rejection (Luoma et al., 2007); active coping with stigma (Luoma et al., 2011); weight stigma (Lillis et al., 2010; Palmeira, Pinto-Gouveia, et al., 2016);…”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialSelf-citationWalters, S. M., Frank, D., Ham, B. V., Jaiswal, J., Muncan, B., Earnshaw, V. A., Schneider, J. A., Friedman, S. R., & Ompad, D. C. (2021) · AIDS and Behavior · doi:10.1007/s10461-021-03488-2 · Cited by 66 · see citing works
Perceived healthcare stigma among patients in opioid substitution treatment: a qualitative study
Garpenhag, L., & Dahlman, D. (2021) · Substance Abuse Treatment Prevention and Policy · doi:10.1186/s13011-021-00417-3 · Cited by 64 · see citing works
“Importantly, stigma related to drug use does not necessarily cease to affect individuals as they go into remission or enter treatment [26].”
BackgroundHeslin, K. C., Singzon, T. K., Aimiuwu, O., Sheridan, D., & Hamilton, A. (2011) · Sociology of Health & Illness · doi:10.1111/j.1467-9566.2011.01376.x · Cited by 63 · see citing works
“…substance misuse stigma, such as activism or education; indeed, efforts to educate others about substance misuse and mental illness have been conceptualized largely as personal coping strategies rather than constructive action aimed at broader social change (Link et al., 1995; Luoma et al., 2007).”
BackgroundInfluentialMurphy, J., & Russell, B. (2020) · Journal of Drug Issues · doi:10.1177/0022042620921363 · Cited by 63 · see citing works
“Research studies, utilizing multiple measures of stigma, show that there is a great deal of public stigma toward people who use drugs, especially toward those who inject drugs (Barry et al., 2014; Calabrese & Bell, 2019; Corrigan et al., 2009; Crandall et al., 2002; Luoma et al., 2007).”
BackgroundSocial judgments of behavioral versus substance-related addictions: a population-based study.
Thege, B. K., Colman, I., el-Guebaly, N., Hodgins, D. C., Patten, S., Schopflocher, D., Wolfe, J., & Wild, T. (2015) · Addictive Behaviours · doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2014.10.025 · Cited by 64 · see citing works
“What are the implications of this openness to conceptualizing awide range of behaviors as addictions for inferences made by the general public about whether they, or people that they know, are suffering from an addiction? The relevance of this question stems from the fact that lay judgments about what ‘counts’ as an a…”
BackgroundPalamar, J. J., Halkitis, P. N., & Kiang, M. V. (2013) · Addiction Research & Theory · doi:10.3109/16066359.2012.762508 · Cited by 60 · see citing works
“Specifically, seminal studies have tended to focus on participants who were homeless, drug-dependent, had psychiatric disorders, or have been in drug treatment (e.g., Link, Struening, Rahav, Phelan, & Nuttbrock, 1997; Luoma et al., 2007; Young, Stuber, Ahern, & Galea, 2005).”
BackgroundInfluentialWang, D., Zhou, Y., Liu, Y.-H., Hao, Y., Zhang, J., Liu, T., & Ma, Y. (2022) · BMC Psychiatry · doi:10.1186/s12888-022-03740-6 · Cited by 61 · see citing works
“Close others who find out about someone’s substance abuse treatment sometimes do not yet exert strong support support [28].”
BackgroundCommunity-Level Barriers to Recovery for Substance-Dependent Rural Residents
Young, L. B., Grant, K. M., & Tyler, K. A. (2015) · Journal of Social Work Practice in the Addictions · doi:10.1080/1533256x.2015.1056058 · Cited by 58 · see citing works
“Professional treatment itself can be perceived as stigmatizing (Luoma et al., 2007), and such stigma might influence treatment seeking in rural areas (Fortney & Booth, 2001).”
BackgroundEarnshaw, V. A., Bogart, L. M., Menino, D. D., Kelly, J. F., Chaudoir, S. R., Reed, N. M., & Levy, S. (2018) · International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction · doi:10.1007/s11469-018-9930-8 · Cited by 58 · see citing works
“Although some research has examined these processes among adults with SUDs (Conner and Rosen 2008; Dobkin et al. 2002; Earnshaw et al. 2013; Luoma et al. 2007), little research has examined them among this population.”
Lovi, R., & Barr, J. (2009) · Contemporary Nurse · doi:10.5172/conu.2009.33.2.166 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
“adversely affected by stigma resulting in employment diffi culties and limited housing availability (Luoma et al., 2007). The stigmatising attitudes of nurses and mental health professionals have also been shown to effect treatment recruitment and retention. Skinner Roche, Freeman, and Addy (2005) concluded that nurse…”
BackgroundInfluentialThe self-stigma process in criminal offenders.
Moore, K. E., Tangney, J. P., & Stuewig, J. B. (2016) · Stigma and Health · doi:10.1037/sah0000024 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
“2006) is sometimes conceptualized as a component of internalized stigma (Luoma et al., 2007; Corrigan et al., 2006), however, there are concerns about measuring self-esteem as a part of self-stigma (Corrigan & Calabrese, 2005).”
BackgroundCole, J., Logan, T., & Walker, R. (2010) · Drug and Alcohol Dependence · doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2010.06.018 · Cited by 56 · see citing works
Correlates of Self-Stigma among Individuals with Substance Use Problems
Brown, S. A., Kramer, K., Lewno, B., Dumas, L., Sacchetti, G. M., & Powell, E. (2015) · International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction · doi:10.1007/s11469-015-9559-9 · Cited by 56 · see citing works
“In one study, individuals in a treatment program cited self-stigma as a factor against seeking out treatment (Luoma et al. 2007).”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialStigma of mental illness and substance misuse in sub‐Saharan African migrants: A qualitative study
McCann, T. V., Renzaho, A. M. N., Mugavin, J., & Lubman, D. I. (2017) · International Journal of Mental Health Nursing · doi:10.1111/inm.12401 · Cited by 56 · see citing works
Chang, C., Chang, K., Hou, W., Yen, C., Lin, C., & Potenza, M. N. (2020) · Drug and Alcohol Dependence · doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2020.108319 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
Social Functioning and Internalized Stigma in Individuals Diagnosed with Substance Use Disorder
Gür, G. C., & Tanrıverdi, D. (2015) · Archives of Psychiatric Nursing · doi:10.1016/j.apnu.2015.07.008 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
““Internal stigma” – also described as felt, imagined, or self stigma – is the product of the internalization of shame, blame, hopelessness, guilt, and fear of discrimination associatedwith substance use (Corrigan&Watson, 2002; Herek, 2007; Kranke, Floersch, Kranke, & Munson, 2011; Luoma et al., 2007).”
BackgroundSubstance Use Stigma as a Barrier to Treatment and Recovery
Luoma, J. B. (2010) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4419-0338-9_59 · Cited by 53 · see citing works
Self-citationChang, C., Chang, K., Griffiths, M. D., Chang, C., Lin, C., & Pakpour, A. H. (2021) · Journal of Psychiatric and Mental Health Nursing · doi:10.1111/jpm.12794 · Cited by 58 · see citing works
Kulesza, M., Ramsey, S., Brown, R. A., & Larimer, M. E. (2014) · Journal of Addictive Behaviors Therapy & Rehabilitation · doi:10.4172/2324-9005.1000115 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
“There is some preliminary evidence to support each of the above as a separate construct [6,10].”
BackgroundStigma, discrimination and crystal methamphetamine (‘ice’): Current attitudes in Australia
Deen, H., Kershaw, S., Newton, N. C., Stapinski, L. A., Birrell, L., Debenham, J., Champion, K. E., KAY‐LAMBKIN, F. J., Teesson, M., & Chapman, C. (2020) · International Journal of Drug Policy · doi:10.1016/j.drugpo.2020.102982 · Cited by 53 · see citing works
Smith, L. R., Mittal, M. L., Wagner, K. D., Copenhaver, M. M., Cunningham, C. O., & Earnshaw, V. A. (2019) · Addiction · doi:10.1111/add.14799 · Cited by 53 · see citing works
Healthcare stigma and HIV risk among rural people who inject drugs
Surratt, H. L., Otachi, J. K., McLouth, C. J., & Vundi, N. (2021) · Drug and Alcohol Dependence · doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2021.108878 · Cited by 53 · see citing works
HIV and substance use stigma, intersectional stigma and healthcare among HIV-positive PWID in Russia
Vetrova, M. V., Cheng, D. M., Bendiks, S., Gnatienko, N., Lloyd-Travaglini, C., Jiang, W., Luoma, J., Blokhina, E., Krupitsky, E., Lioznov, D., et al. (2021) · AIDS and Behavior · doi:10.1007/s10461-021-03172-5 · Cited by 52 · see citing works
Self-citationSubstance use more stigmatized than smoking and obesity
Phillips, L. A., & Shaw, A. (2012) · Journal of Substance Use · doi:10.3109/14659891.2012.661516 · Cited by 52 · see citing works
“Finally, this study echoes the recommendation of Luoma et al. (2007) that treatment providers for individuals with substance use disorders might want to prepare them to face stigma in their environments.”
BackgroundResultInfluential“Abusing Addiction”: Our Language Still Isn’t Good Enough
Ashford, R. D., Brown, A. M., & Curtis, B. L. (2018) · Alcoholism Treatment Quarterly · doi:10.1080/07347324.2018.1513777 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
“) provide one potential obstacle to receiving medically necessary treatment services, the impact of pervasive shame and stigma on help-seeking behavior is perhaps much larger (Luoma et al., 2007).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialDefining Autonomy in Psychiatry
Bergamin, J., Luigjes, J., Kiverstein, J. D., Bockting, C., & Denys, D. A. J. P. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2022.801415 · Cited by 52 · see citing works
“Moreover, internalization of stigma can lead to a loss of self-respect, decreased self-esteem and loss of self-efficacy, decreasing their autonomy (as described in the section Autonomy in Substance Use Disord on SUDS) and decreases their changes of recovery (59, 60).”
BackgroundWeiner, S. G., Lo, Y.-C., Carroll, A. D., Zhou, L., Ngo, A., Hathaway, D. B., Rodriguez, C. P., & Wakeman, S. E. (2023) · Journal of Addiction Medicine · doi:10.1097/adm.0000000000001145 · Cited by 51 · see citing works
Singh, S., Kumar, S., Sarkar, S., & Balhara, Y. P. S. (2018) · Indian Journal of Psychological Medicine · doi:10.4103/ijpsym.ijpsym_171_18 · Cited by 51 · see citing works
“This may be partly explained by the finding that a higher level of perceived stigma is associated with a greater degree of internalised shame and self-concealing behaviour.([23]) This might lead to reduced self-esteem and self-efficacy and, in turn, negatively affect the various domains of QoL.”
BackgroundChang, K.-C., Lin, C.-Y., Chang, C.-C., Ting, S.-Y., Cheng, C.-M., & Wang, J.-D. (2019) · PLOS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0211033 · Cited by 50 · see citing works
de Timary, P., Uva, M. C. D. S., Denoël, C., Hebborn, L. F., Derely, M., Desseilles, M., & Luminet, O. (2013) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0071560 · Cited by 50 · see citing works
“Addiction is among various psychiatric disorders the one which induces the strongest tendency to be stigmatized by others [41], even caregivers [42].”
BackgroundTransitioning From Detoxification to Substance Use Disorder Treatment: Facilitators and Barriers
Timko, C., Schultz, N. R., Britt, J. Y., & Cucciare, M. A. (2016) · Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment · doi:10.1016/j.jsat.2016.07.010 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
“Individuals may resist seeking treatment in fear that they will be labeled as an addict, negatively judged (Allen, Copello, & Orford, 2005; Jackson & Shannon, 2012), treated poorly (Luoma et al., 2007), or face repercussions such as losing custody of their children (Boeri, Tyndall, & Woodall, 2011).”
BackgroundThe internalized stigma experienced by members of a mental health advocacy group in South Africa
Sorsdahl, K. R., Kakuma, R., Wilson, Z., & Stein, D. J. (2010) · International Journal of Social Psychiatry · doi:10.1177/0020764010387058 · Cited by 49 · see citing works
“However, in recent years, many authors argue that at least three conceptually distinct forms of stigma can be identified: enacted/experienced stigma, anticipated/perceived stigma, and internalized/self-stigma (Brohan, Slade et al., 2010; Link and Phelan, 2001; Luoma et al., 2007).”
Background
- Authors
- Luoma, J. B., Twohig, M. P., Waltz, T., Hayes, S. C., Roget, N., Padilla, M., & Fisher, G.
- Affiliations
- University of Nevada, Reno (US)
- Corresponding author
- Luoma, Jason B.
- Venue
- Addictive Behaviors
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2007-07
- Volume
- 32
- Issue
- 7
- Pages
- 1331-1346
- ISSN
- 0306-4603 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2056680548
- Cited by
- 555
- References
- 38
- Citations by year
- 2026: 18 · 2025: 29 · 2024: 38 · 2023: 39 · 2022: 44 · 2021: 59 · 2020: 48 · 2019: 34 · 2018: 35 · 2017: 32 · 2016: 35 · 2015: 27 · 2014: 23 · 2013: 23 · 2012: 18
- FWCI
- 4.64
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Addictive Behaviors (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Epidemiology › Substance Abuse Treatment and Outcomes
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Mental Health Treatment and Access
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Opioid Use Disorder Treatment
- Keywords
- stigma, addiction treatment, self-stigma, perceived stigma, enacted stigma, substance use disorder recovery, people who inject drugs, legal involvement, employment problems
- MeSH terms
- Adaptation, Psychological, Adolescent, Adult, Aged, Female, Humans, Male, Middle Aged, Quality of Life, Surveys and Questionnaires, Self Concept, Shame, Stereotyping, Substance-Related Disorders
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