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Measurement invariance across young adults from Hong Kong and Taiwan among three internet-related addiction scales: Bergen Social Media Addiction Scale (BSMAS), Smartphone Application-Based Addiction Scale (SABAS), and Internet Gaming Disorder Scale-Short Form (IGDS-SF9) (Study Part A)

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Leung, Hildie, Pakpour, Amir H., Strong, Carol, Lin, Yi-Ching, Tsai, Meng-Che, Griffiths, Mark D., Lin, Chung-Ying, Chen, I-Hua·2020·Addictive Behaviors

DOI 10.1016/j.addbeh.2019.04.027

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Abstract

Internet addiction has been found to be prevalent worldwide, including Asian countries, and related to several negative outcomes and other behavioral addictions. The Bergen Social Media Addiction Scale (BSMAS), Smartphone Application-Based Addiction Scale (SABAS), and nine-item Internet Gaming Disorder Scale-Short Form (IGDS-SF9) have been extensively used to assess internet-related addictions. However, the three aforementioned instruments have rarely been used in Asian countries. The aim of the present study was to investigate whether the BSMAS, SABAS, and IGDS-SF9 were appropriate for use in heterogeneous subsamples from Hong Kong and Taiwan. University students from Hong Kong (n = 306) and Taiwan (n = 336) were recruited via an online survey. Multigroup confirmatory factor analysis (MGCFA) was used to assess measurement invariance of the BSMAS, SABAS, and IGDS-SF9 across the two subcultures. The original unidimensional structures of BSMAS, SABAS and IGDS-SF9 were confirmed through confirmatory factorial analysis in both subcultures. The MGCFA results showed that the unidimensional structures of the BSMAS and IGDS-SF9 were invariant across the two Chinese cultural areas (Hong Kong and Taiwan). However, the measurement invariance of the SABAS was established after some model modifications. In conclusion, the present study found that the Chinese BSMAS, SABAS, and IGDS-SF9 were all adequate instruments to validly assess internet-related addictions among university students. The three brief instruments used for assessing addictions to social media, smartphone applications, and online gaming are valid and psychometrically robust across two Chinese subcultures and can be used by healthcare professionals in these regions.

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Ma, L., & Li, Y. (2026) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1769765 · Cited by 1
“The BSMAS has demonstrated good reliability and validity in Chinese young adult populations (Leung et al., 2020).”
Effect of attentional bias modification on social media addiction: a visual dot-probe task
Zhao, J., Yu, J., Shi, Z., Li, M., Zhou, X., Liu, Z., & Hao, L. (2026) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1792101
The relationship between public health emergencies and suicidal ideation: the mediating role of fear of missing out and the moderating role of conscientiousness
Tan, Z., & He, B. (2026) · BMC Psychology · doi:10.1186/s40359-026-04417-5
“Drawing on relevant scales such as the revised Impact of Event Scale (IES-R) [29, 83] and scales related to mobile social media dependency [45, 47, 70, 75], a Public Health Emergency Information Exposure Questionnaire was developed.”
Étude des troubles liés à l'usage d'internet : la question des croyances fondamentales et métacognitions liées à l'usage d'internet, l'impact des réseaux sociaux sur l'image du corps et la sexualité, et le burn-out des réseaux sociaux
Harren, N. (2022) · theses.fr (ABES) · doi:10.70675/35c7d92cz534bz4cd2za939zfc1fa0155592
Gambling in Online Gaming among Youth in Hong Kong: Does Internet Gaming Disorder (IGD) and Online Gambling Tendency Play a Role?
Kang, W., Chui, R. C. F., Siu, N. Y.-F., Lee, J. Y.-S., Lau, W.-Y., & Chan, C.-K. (2026) · Journal of Gambling Studies · doi:10.1007/s10899-026-10494-3
“The Chinese version of IGDS-SF9 was validated in Hong Kong and Taiwan with high reliabilities (α = 0.93 for Hong Kong participants and α = 0.94 for Taiwanese participants) (Leung et al., 2020).”
Influential
Mobile phone addiction in African societies
Khumalo, T. (2026) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1773697
Eveningness and exercise procrastination: The mediating roles of social media addiction and morning affect
Hussain, A., & Carciofo, R. (2026) · Chronobiology International · doi:10.1080/07420528.2026.2659249
“…et al. 2016), good convergent validity when tested against similar scales such as the Social Network Site Use Motives Scale (Shin and Lim 2018), and has been validated across several populations such as in South Korea, Taiwan, and Italy (Monacis et al. 2017; Leung et al. 2020; Shin 2022).”
Emotion regulation profiles moderate links between perceived interparental conflict, peer bullying victimization, and adolescent internet gaming disorder
Liu, L., Chen, S., Tang, X., Bao, J., Luo, Y., & Chen, J. (2026) · Addictive Behaviors · doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2026.108711 · Cited by 1
Transdiagnostic symptom networks of impulsivity, problematic smartphone use, and social media addiction: replication across two samples
Gong, Y., Zhou, T., Zhou, W., Yang, L., Li, Y., Miao, D., Qiu, R., Zhu, X., & Guo, Z. (2026) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2026.117209
Psychometric Properties of the Bergen Social Media Addiction Scale in Korean Adolescents
Lim, Y.-J. (2026) · Behavioral Psychology/Psicología Conductual · doi:10.31083/bp45399
The Swedish version of the Bergen Social Media Addiction Scale: A psychometric evaluation among adolescents
Jakobsson, M., Björling, G., Broström, A., Huus, K., Eriksson, M., Bengtsson, S., Griffiths, M. D., & Pakpour, A. (2026) · Addictive Behaviors Reports · doi:10.1016/j.abrep.2026.100704 · Cited by 1
“…Canadian French (Rouleau et al., 2023), Greek (Dadiotis et al., 2021), Korean (Shin, 2022), Bengali (Naher et al., 2022), Chinese/Mandarin Chinese (Leung et al., 2020), Arabic (Abiddine et al., 2025; Al-Dassean & Murad, 2025), Romanian (St ˘ anculescu, 2022), Slovenian ( ˇ Zmavc et al., 2022),…”
Self-citation
A Meaning- and Emotion-Regulation-Based Intervention for Problematic Interactive Media use Among Chinese Rural Adolescents: A Randomized Controlled Trial
Li, Y., Bu, Y., & Kwok, S. Y. C. L. (2026) · Research on Social Work Practice · doi:10.1177/10497315261454681
Factors Influencing Consumer Attitudes towards Short-Form Video Platforms Addiction and their Intention to Use: An Empirical Study
Mariappan, L., & Hariharan, K. (2026) · Entertainment Computing · doi:10.1016/j.entcom.2026.101160
Social Media Addiction Among Young Adults: A Bibliometric Analysis
Çinbilgel, B., & Bağatarhan, T. (2026) · Buca eğitim fakültesi dergisi (Online)/Buca Eğitim Fakültesi dergisi · doi:10.53444/deubefd.1823116
The mediator role of social media addiction in the relationship between perceived social support and depression
Kütük, B., & Aytemür, M. (2026) · Addicta The Turkish Journal on Addictions · doi:10.15805/addicta.2026.506
“The upward trend of social media addiction is most likely to persist due to the rapid advancements in internet and smartphone technologies (Leung et al., 2020).”
Joint victimization patterns and adolescents’ internet-related addictive behaviors: a longitudinal study of gender differences
Qiao, X., Liao, J., Cheng, X., Yu, J., Li, T., & Lei, L. (2026) · Addiction Research & Theory · doi:10.1080/16066359.2026.2703031
Comparing the measurement precision of three online addiction scales in Chinese primary school students: a bifactor IRT study
Ma, J., An, S., Chen, Q., & Liu, S. (2026) · BMC Psychiatry · doi:10.1186/s12888-026-08549-1
Perceived Parental Control and Mixed-Feature Symptoms in Student Patients with Depressive Episodes: Associations with Depressive Symptoms and Smartphone Addiction in a Multicenter StudyPreprint
Ma, J., Cheng, Z., Sun, W., Xu, L., Wang, S., & Jiang, B. (2026) · Research Square · doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-10321561/v1
More than screen deep - finding the inflection point of problematic social media use
Arnold, R. C. G., & Machande, A. D. (2026) · Journal of Social Media Research · doi:10.29329/jsomer.112
“Leung et al. (2020) find a correlation of .268 in Hong Kong and Taiwan, while Naher et al. (2022) show a similar value of .31 among Bangladeshi students.”
Gender Differences in the Co-Occurrence Networks of Problematic Social Media Use and Depressive Symptoms in Adolescents: A Cross-Lagged Panel Network Analysis.
Liu, G., Li, Y.-L., Liao, W.-P., Zhang, T.-R., He, S.-C., Feng, X., & Liu, Y. (2026) · Journal des adolescens · doi:10.1002/jad.70263
Subtypes of social media addiction in adolescents and their characteristics of emotional reinforcement and attentional bias
Wang, J., Chicheng, L. I., Chuangtao, L. I., Peng, S., & Shen, W. A. N. G. (2026) · Journal of Zhejiang University (Medical Sciences) · doi:10.3724/zdxbyxb-2026-0045
Development and Validation of the Japanese Version of the Bergen Social Media Addiction Scale (BSMAS-J)
連志賢, Zhang, M., LIU, Z., & Dou, X. (2026) · European Journal of Investigation in Health Psychology and Education · doi:10.3390/ejihpe16100148
A preliminary psychometric validation of selected mental health scales among youths residing in Hong Kong
Ahorsu, D. K. (2026) · Cambridge Prisms Global Mental Health · doi:10.1017/gmh.2026.10302
“Specifically, the DSM-5-adapted version of PHQ-9 was found to have a stable unidimensional factor structure indicative of a single latent construct that assesses depression among participants, similar to previous studies (see Ahorsu et al., 2026a; Leung et al., 2020a).”
Influential
Linking childhood emotional maltreatment to social media addiction: a network perspective on executive function and physical activity
Chen, Y., Wang, N., Yuan, A., Xiang, L., Long, S., Luo, J., & Liu, Y. (2026) · Frontiers in Public Health · doi:10.3389/fpubh.2026.1945221
Differential Indirect Associations of Desire Thinking Components Linking Distress Tolerance and Experiential Avoidance With Problematic Social Media Use: A Parallel-Pathway Analysis Within the I-PACE Framework
Mayeli, P., & Tajrishi, K. Z. (2026) · Imagination Cognition and Personality · doi:10.1177/02762366261494101

Authors: Leung, H., Pakpour, A. H., Strong, C., Lin, Y.-C., Tsai, M.-C., Griffiths, M. D., Lin, C.-Y., & Chen, I.-H.
Affiliations: Hong Kong Polytechnic University (HK)
Qazvin University of Medical Sciences (IR)
National Cheng Kung University Hospital (TW)
National Taipei University of Education (TW)
Nottingham Trent University (GB)
Qufu Normal University (CN)
Corresponding author: Lin, Chung-Ying
ORCID: Leung, Hildie
Pakpour, Amir H.
Strong, Carol
Lin, Yi-Ching
Tsai, Meng-Che
Griffiths, Mark D.
Lin, Chung-Ying
Chen, I-Hua
Venue: Addictive Behaviors
Publisher: Elsevier BV
Published: 2020-02
Volume: 101
Pages: 105969
ISSN: 0306-4603 (ISSN-L)
DOI: 10.1016/j.addbeh.2019.04.027
OpenAlex: W2941523253
Semantic Scholar: 69ecdf915be4d6682db4658ea658e8fff48a1d0a
Cited by: 290
References: 64
Citations by year: 2026: 36 · 2025: 56 · 2024: 42 · 2023: 48 · 2022: 50 · 2021: 32 · 2020: 20
FWCI: 54.38
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: green
urn.kb.se
Licence: other-oa
www.elsevier.com/tdm/userlicense/1.0/ (tdm)
www.elsevier.com/legal/tdmrep-license (tdm)
Locations: Addictive Behaviors (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Nottingham Trent University's Institutional Repository (Nottingham Trent Repository) (acceptedVersion)
Diva portal (Dalarna University Library) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
Funders: Hong Kong Polytechnic University
Topics: Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Impact of Technology on Adolescents
Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › Management Science and Operations Research › Psychometric Methodologies and Testing
Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Gambling Behavior and Treatments
Keywords: social media addiction, smartphone addiction, internet gaming disorder, Bergen Social Media Addiction Scale, measurement invariance, cross-cultural validation, Hong Kong, Taiwan, university students, behavioral addiction
MeSH terms: Internet Addiction Disorder, Adult, Factor Analysis, Statistical, Female, Hong Kong, Humans, Male, Psychiatric Status Rating Scales, Psychometrics, Students, Taiwan, Reproducibility of Results, Young Adult

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Measurement invariance across young adults from Hong Kong and Taiwan among three internet-related addiction scales: Bergen Social Media Addiction Scale (BSMAS), Smartphone Application-Based Addiction Scale (SABAS), and Internet Gaming Disorder Scale-Short Form (IGDS-SF9) (Study Part A)

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