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Measurement invariance across young adults from Hong Kong and Taiwan among three internet-related addiction scales: Bergen Social Media Addiction Scale (BSMAS), Smartphone Application-Based Addiction Scale (SABAS), and Internet Gaming Disorder Scale-Short Form (IGDS-SF9) (Study Part A)

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Leung, Hildie, Pakpour, Amir H., Strong, Carol, Lin, Yi-Ching, Tsai, Meng-Che, Griffiths, Mark D., Lin, Chung-Ying, Chen, I-Hua·2020·Addictive Behaviors

DOI 10.1016/j.addbeh.2019.04.027

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Abstract

Internet addiction has been found to be prevalent worldwide, including Asian countries, and related to several negative outcomes and other behavioral addictions. The Bergen Social Media Addiction Scale (BSMAS), Smartphone Application-Based Addiction Scale (SABAS), and nine-item Internet Gaming Disorder Scale-Short Form (IGDS-SF9) have been extensively used to assess internet-related addictions. However, the three aforementioned instruments have rarely been used in Asian countries. The aim of the present study was to investigate whether the BSMAS, SABAS, and IGDS-SF9 were appropriate for use in heterogeneous subsamples from Hong Kong and Taiwan. University students from Hong Kong (n = 306) and Taiwan (n = 336) were recruited via an online survey. Multigroup confirmatory factor analysis (MGCFA) was used to assess measurement invariance of the BSMAS, SABAS, and IGDS-SF9 across the two subcultures. The original unidimensional structures of BSMAS, SABAS and IGDS-SF9 were confirmed through confirmatory factorial analysis in both subcultures. The MGCFA results showed that the unidimensional structures of the BSMAS and IGDS-SF9 were invariant across the two Chinese cultural areas (Hong Kong and Taiwan). However, the measurement invariance of the SABAS was established after some model modifications. In conclusion, the present study found that the Chinese BSMAS, SABAS, and IGDS-SF9 were all adequate instruments to validly assess internet-related addictions among university students. The three brief instruments used for assessing addictions to social media, smartphone applications, and online gaming are valid and psychometrically robust across two Chinese subcultures and can be used by healthcare professionals in these regions.

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Alimoradi, Z., Broström, A., Potenza, M. N., Lin, C., & Pakpour, A. H. (2024) · Current Addiction Reports · doi:10.1007/s40429-024-00555-1 · Cited by 55
Self-citation
Internet gaming as a coping method among schizophrenic patients facing psychological distress
Chang, Y.-H., Chang, K., Hou, W., Lin, C., & Griffiths, M. D. (2020) · Journal of Behavioral Addictions · doi:10.1556/2006.2020.00081 · Cited by 46
“This can result in educational and/or occupational impairment, relationship problems, daily dysfunction, and psychological distress (Alimoradi et al., 2019; Chen, Huang, Wu, Kuo, & Lin, 2019; Hawi, Samaha, & Griffiths, 2018; Leung et al., 2020; Strong, Lee, Chao, Lin, & Tsai, 2018).”
MethodInfluentialSelf-citation
Validation study of the Indonesian internet addiction test among adolescents
Siste, K., Suwartono, C., Nasrun, M. W. S., Bardosono, S., Sekartini, R., Pandelaki, J., Sarasvita, R., Murtani, B. J., Damayanti, R., & Wiguna, T. (2021) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0245833 · Cited by 53
Network analysis of internet gaming disorder, problematic social media use, problematic smartphone use, psychological distress, and meaning in life among adolescents
Li, Y., Mu, W., Xie, X., & Kwok, S. Y. C. L. (2023) · Digital Health · doi:10.1177/20552076231158036 · Cited by 44
“35 The Cronbach ’ s alpha was 0.87 in the current study.”
MethodInfluential
The unique role of smartphone addiction and related factors among university students: a model based on cross-sectional and cross-lagged network analyses
Liu, C. (2023) · BMC Psychiatry · doi:10.1186/s12888-023-05384-6 · Cited by 51
“In future research, the present author will select some scales that are popular internationally and also applicable in China, such as Smartphone Application Based Addition Scale (SABAS) [4, 6, 91, 92].”
Method
Validation of the Internet Gaming Disorder Symptoms Checklist Based on the Fifth Edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders in Chinese Adolescents
Yang, X., Jiang, X., Wu, A. M. S., Ma, L., Cai, Y., Wong, K. M., & Lau, J. T. F. (2021) · Child Psychiatry & Human Development · doi:10.1007/s10578-021-01213-7 · Cited by 42
Does childhood maltreatment increase the subsequent risk of problematic smartphone use among adolescents? A two-wave longitudinal study
Geng, J., Bao, L., Wang, H., Wang, J., Gao, T., & Lei, L. (2022) · Addictive Behaviors · doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2022.107250 · Cited by 40
Psychological Pathway from Obesity-Related Stigma to Anxiety via Internalized Stigma and Self-Esteem among Adolescents in Taiwan
Lin, C., Tsai, M., Liu, C.-H., Lin, Y.-C., Hsieh, Y., & Strong, C. (2019) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph16224410 · Cited by 41
“Taiwan and Hong Kong still needs to be examined [30].”
BackgroundSelf-citation
Social media use, psychological well-being and physical health during lockdown
Yue, Z., Lee, D. S., Xiao, J., & Zhang, R. (2021) · Information Communication & Society · doi:10.1080/1369118x.2021.2013917 · Cited by 48
“Scale has been widely used to capture excessive social media use and is validated in different contexts (Leung et al., 2020).”
Method
A longitudinal study of the effects of problematic smartphone use on social functioning among people with schizophrenia: Mediating roles for sleep quality and self-stigma
Chang, K., Chang, Y., Yen, C., Chen, J., Chen, P., Lin, C., Griffiths, M. D., Potenza, M. N., & Pakpour, A. H. (2022) · Journal of Behavioral Addictions · doi:10.1556/2006.2022.00012 · Cited by 41
“The psychometric properties of the Chinese SABAS have been supported by satisfactory internal consistency (a5 0.78) and construct validity (comparative fit index5 0.980–1.000) (Chen, Strong, et al., 2020; Leung et al., 2020; Yam et al., 2019).”
MethodInfluentialSelf-citation
Measurement Invariance of the Bergen Social Media Addiction Scale Across Genders
Yue, H., Zhang, X., Cheng, X., Liu, B., & Bao, H. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.879259 · Cited by 47
“has been reported in previous two studies (Leung et al., 2020; Huang et al., 2021), evidences yielded by the current research still indicated that the unidimensional factor structure of this scale was robust across genders.”
BackgroundResultInfluential
Translation and Validation of the Gaming Disorder Test and Gaming Disorder Scale for Adolescents into Chinese for Taiwanese Young Adults
Wu, T., Huang, S.-W., Chen, J., Ruckwongpatr, K., Kukreti, S., Strong, C., Pontes, H. M., Lin, I., Lin, C., Potenza, M. N., et al. (2023) · Comprehensive Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.comppsych.2023.152396 · Cited by 39
“The internal consistency of the IGDS9-SF was excellent in both the English ( α = 0.87) and simplified Chinese versions ( α = 0.94) [32,41].”
InfluentialSelf-citation
Adaptation and validation of the Online-Fear of Missing Out Inventory into Turkish and the association with social media addiction, smartphone addiction, and life satisfaction
Bakioğlu, F., Deniz, M., Griffiths, M. D., & Pakpour, A. H. (2022) · BMC Psychology · doi:10.1186/s40359-022-00856-y · Cited by 36
Self-citation
Connecting self-esteem to problematic AI chatbot use: the multiple mediating roles of positive and negative psychological states
Yao, R., Qi, G., Sheng, D., Sun, H., & Zhang, J. (2025) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1453072 · Cited by 50
Reliability and validity study of the Indonesian Smartphone Application-Based Addiction Scale (SABAS) among college students
Nurmala, I., Nadhiroh, S. R., Pramukti, I., Tyas, L., Zari, A., Griffiths, M., & Lin, C.-Y. (2022) · Heliyon · doi:10.1016/j.heliyon.2022.e10403 · Cited by 37
“Construct validity of the SABAS was then examined using the CFA given that the SABAS has been found to be a unidimensional instrument (Chen et al., 2020; Leung et al., 2020; Lin et al., 2017; Poon et al., 2021; Wu et al., 2017; Yam et al., 2019).”
MethodResultInfluentialSelf-citation
Understanding the Association Between Intolerance of Uncertainty and Problematic Smartphone Use: A Network Analysis
Liu, C., Ren, L., Li, K., Yang, W., Li, Y., Rotaru, K., Wei, X., Yücel, M., & Albertella, L. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2022.917833 · Cited by 36
“Finally, despite being used in several empirical studies, the validation of themodified nine-item Internet Gaming Disorder Scale - Short Form is still ongoing.”
MethodInfluential
Problematic Gaming in Malaysian University Students: Translation and Psychometric Evaluation of the Malay Language Versions of Gaming Disorder Test and Gaming Disorder Scale for Young Adults
GHAZI, F., Gan, W. Y., Tung, S. E. H., Chen, I., Poon, W. C., Siaw, Y.-L., Ruckwongpatr, K., Chen, J., Huang, S.-W., Griffiths, M. D., et al. (2023) · Evaluation & the Health Professions · doi:10.1177/01632787231185845 · Cited by 36
“Currently, the BSMAS has been validated in many language versions (Chen et al., 2020a, 2020b; Leung et al., 2020; Lin et al., 2017; Monacis et al., 2017; Shin, 2022; Tung et al., 2022), including Malay (Tiong, 2020) and English versions for Malaysians (Tung et al., 2022).”
MethodSelf-citation
Psychometric Evaluation and Comparison of Two Gaming Disorder Measures Derived From the DSM-5 and ICD-11 Frameworks
Wang, H., & Cheng, C. (2020) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2020.577366 · Cited by 39
Exploring mediational roles for self-stigma in associations between types of problematic use of internet and psychological distress in youth with ADHD.
Lee, K.-Y., Chen, C.-Y., Chen, J.-K., Liu, C.-C., Chang, K.-C., Fung, X. C. C., Chen, J.-S., Kao, Y.-C., Potenza, M., Pakpour, A., et al. (2023) · Research in Developmental Disabilities · doi:10.1016/j.ridd.2022.104410 · Cited by 34
Self-citation
A rise in social media use in adolescents during the COVID-19 pandemic: the French validation of the Bergen Social Media Addiction Scale in a Canadian cohort
Rouleau, R. D., Beauregard, C., & Beaudry, V. (2023) · BMC Psychology · doi:10.1186/s40359-023-01141-2 · Cited by 46
Social Exclusion and Short Video Addiction: The Mediating Role of Boredom and Self-Control
Zhang, Y., Bu, R., Zhao, J., & Li, X. (2024) · Psychology Research and Behavior Management · doi:10.2147/prbm.s463240 · Cited by 40
“30 The single-dimensional scale includes six items scored on a 5-point Likert scale from “totally disagree” to “totally agree”.”
Psychometric properties and development of the Chinese versions of Gaming Disorder Test (GDT) and Gaming Disorder Scale for Adolescents (GADIS-A)
Chen, I., Chang, Y.-L., Yang, Y., Yeh, Y., Ahorsu, D. K., Adjorlolo, S., Strong, C., Hsieh, Y., Huang, P., Pontes, H. M., et al. (2023) · Asian Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.ajp.2023.103638 · Cited by 37
Self-citation
Problematic smartphone use and two types of problematic use of the internet and self-stigma among people with substance use disorders
Chang, C.-W., Chen, J., Huang, S.-W., Potenza, M. N., Su, J.-A., Chang, K., Pakpour, A. H., & Lin, C. (2023) · Addictive Behaviors · doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2023.107807 · Cited by 34
Self-citation
Internet addiction and maladaptive schemas: The potential role of disconnection/rejection and impaired autonomy/performance
Ostovar, S., Bagheri, R., Griffiths, M. D., & Hashim, I. H. M. (2021) · Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy · doi:10.1002/cpp.2581 · Cited by 39
Self-citation
Meta-analysis of Reliability and Validity of the Bergen Social Media Addiction Scale (BSMAS)
Bottaro, R., Griffiths, M. D., & Faraci, P. (2025) · International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction · doi:10.1007/s11469-025-01461-x · Cited by 41
Self-citation
Attached to Virtual Dreams
Costanzo, A., Santoro, G., Russo, S., Cassarà, M. S., Midolo, L. R., Billieux, J., & Schimmenti, A. (2021) · The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease · doi:10.1097/nmd.0000000000001356 · Cited by 34
“The BSMAS has been translated into different languages and shows good psychometric properties (Bányai et al., 2017; Leung et al., 2020; Lin et al., 2017; Monacis et al., 2017).”
Method
Social Media Addiction among Vietnam Youths: Patterns and Correlated Factors
Doan, L. P., Le, L. K., Nguyen, T. T., Nguyễn, T. T. P., Vu, M. N. L., Vu, G. T., Latkin, C. A., Ho, C. S. H., Ho, R., & Zhang, M. W. (2022) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph192114416 · Cited by 41
“Subsequent validation studies were undertaken in other cohorts, most recently in Hong Kong and Taiwan, which also yielded favorable results [19].”
Result
The association between smartphone use and sleep quality, psychological distress, and loneliness among health care students and workers in Saudi Arabia
Alzhrani, A. M., Aboalshamat, K. T., Badawoud, A. M., Abdouh, I. M., Badri, H. M., Quronfulah, B. S., Mahmoud, M. A., & Rajeh, M. T. (2023) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0280681 · Cited by 40
Digital Reflections: Narcissism, Stress, Social Media Addiction, and Nomophobia
Maftei, A., & Pătrăușanu, A.-M. (2024) · The Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1080/00223980.2023.2256453 · Cited by 31
“Social media addiction is a specific form of Internet addiction (Chen et al., 2020; Leung et al., 2020), referring to the maladaptive use of social networks, characterized by addiction-specific symptoms and/or reduced self-regulation (Sun & Zhang, 2021).”
Background
Loot boxes, gambling-related risk factors, and mental health in Mainland China: A large-scale survey
Xiao, L. Y., Fraser, T. C., Nielsen, R. K. L., & Newall, P. W. S. (2023) · Addictive Behaviors · doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2023.107860 · Cited by 32
The YouTube Addiction Scale: Psychometric Evidence for a New Instrument Developed Based on the Component Model of Addiction
Pakpour, A. H., Jafari, E., Zanjanchi, F., Potenza, M. N., & Lin, C. (2023) · International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction · doi:10.1007/s11469-023-01216-6 · Cited by 34
“IA may be classified into generalized and specific forms (Chen et al., 2020a, b; Leung et al., 2020).”
Self-citation
Smartphone Use and Psychological Well-being: the Moderating Role of Emotion Regulation
Fortes, A. B., Broilo, P. L., & Lisbôa, C. S. D. M. (2020) · Trends in Psychology · doi:10.1007/s43076-020-00051-1 · Cited by 36
Smartphone addiction and perceived pain among nursing students: a cross-sectional study
Özdi̇l, K., Çatıker, A., & Büyüksoy, G. D. B. (2021) · Psychology Health & Medicine · doi:10.1080/13548506.2021.1958236 · Cited by 31
“In the literature, it is seen that there are many studies evaluating the internet and smartphone addiction status of university students with different scales (Leung et al., 2020; Chen et al., 2020b; Lin et al., 2019).”
Background
The roles of behavioral inhibition/activation systems and impulsivity in problematic smartphone use: A network analysis
Guo, Z., He, Y., Yang, T., Ren, L., Qiu, R., Zhu, X., & Wu, S. (2022) · Frontiers in Public Health · doi:10.3389/fpubh.2022.1014548 · Cited by 31
Potential risk and protective factors related to problematic social media use among adolescents in Iran: A latent profile analysis
Akbari, M., Bahadori, M. H., Khanbabaei, S., Milan, B. B., Jamshidi, S., & Potenza, M. N. (2023) · Addictive Behaviors · doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2023.107802 · Cited by 30
The relationship between family functioning and social media addiction among university students: a moderated mediation model of depressive symptoms and peer support
Qi, Y., Zhao, M., Geng, T., Tu, Z., Lu, Q., Li, R., Niu, L., Qu, W., Zhong, Y., & Gao, Y. (2024) · BMC Psychology · doi:10.1186/s40359-024-01818-2 · Cited by 37
“Individuals with a score of 19 or higher [52] were considered to have SMA.”
BackgroundMethod
The Effect of Primary and Middle School Teachers’ Problematic Internet Use and Fear of COVID-19 on Psychological Need Thwarting of Online Teaching and Psychological Distress
Yi, J., Chen, I., Lin, C., Li, C.-C., Liao, X.-L., Zhi-hui, W., & Gamble, J. H. (2021) · Healthcare · doi:10.3390/healthcare9091199 · Cited by 37
“The psychometric properties of the Chinese version of SABAS have been established [54,55].”
BackgroundSelf-citation
Uncovering sample heterogeneity in gaming and social withdrawal behaviors in adolescent and young adult gamers in Hong Kong
Fong, T. C. T., Cheng, Q., Pai, C. Y., Kwan, I., Wong, C. L. H., Cheung, S. H., & YIP, P. S. F. (2023) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2023.115774 · Cited by 29
Exploring Internet gaming disorder: an updated perspective of empirical evidence (from 2016 to 2021)
Mestre‐Bach, G., Fernández‐Aranda, F., & Jiménez‐Múrcia, S. (2022) · Comprehensive Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.comppsych.2022.152319 · Cited by 30
Effects of sleep quality on the association between problematic internet use and quality of life in people with substance use disorder
Saffari, M., Chen, H., Chang, C.-W., Fan, C.-W., Huang, S.-W., Chen, J., Chang, K., & Lin, C. (2022) · BJPsych Open · doi:10.1192/bjo.2022.557 · Cited by 35
Self-citation
The Psychometric Properties of the Arabic Bergen Social Media Addiction Scale
Abiddine, F. Z. E., Aljaberi, M. A. A., Alduais, A. M. S., Lin, C.-Y., Vally, Z., & Griffiths, M. D. (2024) · International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction · doi:10.1007/s11469-024-01297-x · Cited by 32
“Moreover, the BSMAS has been used to assess the risk of PSMU across different cultures and languages (Chen et al., 2020a, 2020b, 2020c; Ghazi et al., 2024; Leung et al., 2020; Tung et al., 2022; Yam et al., 2019).”
Self-citation
Comorbidity among symptoms of internet gaming disorder, social withdrawal, and depression in 3430 young people in Hong Kong: A network analysis
Fong, T. C. T., Junus, A., Wen, M., & YIP, P. S. F. (2024) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2024.05.091 · Cited by 30
Attentional Bias Is Associated with Negative Emotions in Problematic Users of Social Media as Measured by a Dot-Probe Task
Zhao, J., Zhou, Z., Sun, B., Zhang, X., Zhang, L., & Fu, S. (2022) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph192416938 · Cited by 29
Network analysis of the relationships between problematic smartphone use and anxiety, and depression in a sample of Chinese college students
Guo, Z., Yang, T., Qiu, R., Qiu, H., Ren, L., Liu, X., Han, Z., & Zhu, X. (2023) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1097301 · Cited by 26
“Smartphone Application-Based Addiction Scale (SABAS) The valid Chinese version of SABAS was used to assess the likelihood of PSU (38, 39).”
Method
The association of care burden with motivation of vaccine acceptance among caregivers of stroke patients during the COVID-19 pandemic: mediating roles of problematic social media use, worry, and fear
Kukreti, S., Strong, C., Chen, J., Chen, Y., Griffiths, M. D., Hsieh, M., & Lin, C. (2023) · BMC Psychology · doi:10.1186/s40359-023-01186-3 · Cited by 27
Self-citation
Assessing Problematic Social Media Use in Adolescents by Parental Ratings: Development and Validation of the Social Media Disorder Scale for Parents (SMDS-P)
Austermann, M. I., Thomasius, R., & Paschke, K. (2021) · Journal of Clinical Medicine · doi:10.3390/jcm10040617 · Cited by 26
Developmental pathways from parental rejection to adolescent internet gaming disorder: A parallel process latent growth model
Zhu, J., & Chen, Y. (2021) · Children and Youth Services Review · doi:10.1016/j.childyouth.2021.106128 · Cited by 27
Motors of COVID-19 Vaccination Acceptance Scale (MoVac-COVID19S): Evidence of Measurement Invariance Across Five Countries
Chen, I.-H., Wu, P.-L., Yen, C.-F., Ullah, I., Shoib, S., Zahid, S. U., Bashir, A., Iqbal, N., Addo, F.-M., Adjaottor, E. S., et al. (2022) · Risk Management and Healthcare Policy · doi:10.2147/rmhp.s351794 · Cited by 25
Self-citation

Authors: Leung, H., Pakpour, A. H., Strong, C., Lin, Y.-C., Tsai, M.-C., Griffiths, M. D., Lin, C.-Y., & Chen, I.-H.
Affiliations: Hong Kong Polytechnic University (HK)
Qazvin University of Medical Sciences (IR)
National Cheng Kung University Hospital (TW)
National Taipei University of Education (TW)
Nottingham Trent University (GB)
Qufu Normal University (CN)
Corresponding author: Lin, Chung-Ying
ORCID: Leung, Hildie
Pakpour, Amir H.
Strong, Carol
Lin, Yi-Ching
Tsai, Meng-Che
Griffiths, Mark D.
Lin, Chung-Ying
Chen, I-Hua
Venue: Addictive Behaviors
Publisher: Elsevier BV
Published: 2020-02
Volume: 101
Pages: 105969
ISSN: 0306-4603 (ISSN-L)
DOI: 10.1016/j.addbeh.2019.04.027
OpenAlex: W2941523253
Semantic Scholar: 69ecdf915be4d6682db4658ea658e8fff48a1d0a
Cited by: 290
References: 64
Citations by year: 2026: 36 · 2025: 56 · 2024: 42 · 2023: 48 · 2022: 50 · 2021: 32 · 2020: 20
FWCI: 54.38
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: green
urn.kb.se
Licence: other-oa
www.elsevier.com/tdm/userlicense/1.0/ (tdm)
www.elsevier.com/legal/tdmrep-license (tdm)
Locations: Addictive Behaviors (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Nottingham Trent University's Institutional Repository (Nottingham Trent Repository) (acceptedVersion)
Diva portal (Dalarna University Library) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
Funders: Hong Kong Polytechnic University
Topics: Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Impact of Technology on Adolescents
Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › Management Science and Operations Research › Psychometric Methodologies and Testing
Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Gambling Behavior and Treatments
Keywords: social media addiction, smartphone addiction, internet gaming disorder, Bergen Social Media Addiction Scale, measurement invariance, cross-cultural validation, Hong Kong, Taiwan, university students, behavioral addiction
MeSH terms: Internet Addiction Disorder, Adult, Factor Analysis, Statistical, Female, Hong Kong, Humans, Male, Psychiatric Status Rating Scales, Psychometrics, Students, Taiwan, Reproducibility of Results, Young Adult

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Measurement invariance across young adults from Hong Kong and Taiwan among three internet-related addiction scales: Bergen Social Media Addiction Scale (BSMAS), Smartphone Application-Based Addiction Scale (SABAS), and Internet Gaming Disorder Scale-Short Form (IGDS-SF9) (Study Part A)

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