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Measurement invariance across young adults from Hong Kong and Taiwan among three internet-related addiction scales: Bergen Social Media Addiction Scale (BSMAS), Smartphone Application-Based Addiction Scale (SABAS), and Internet Gaming Disorder Scale-Short Form (IGDS-SF9) (Study Part A)

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Leung, Hildie, Pakpour, Amir H., Strong, Carol, Lin, Yi-Ching, Tsai, Meng-Che, Griffiths, Mark D., Lin, Chung-Ying, Chen, I-Hua·2020·Addictive Behaviors

DOI 10.1016/j.addbeh.2019.04.027

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Abstract

Internet addiction has been found to be prevalent worldwide, including Asian countries, and related to several negative outcomes and other behavioral addictions. The Bergen Social Media Addiction Scale (BSMAS), Smartphone Application-Based Addiction Scale (SABAS), and nine-item Internet Gaming Disorder Scale-Short Form (IGDS-SF9) have been extensively used to assess internet-related addictions. However, the three aforementioned instruments have rarely been used in Asian countries. The aim of the present study was to investigate whether the BSMAS, SABAS, and IGDS-SF9 were appropriate for use in heterogeneous subsamples from Hong Kong and Taiwan. University students from Hong Kong (n = 306) and Taiwan (n = 336) were recruited via an online survey. Multigroup confirmatory factor analysis (MGCFA) was used to assess measurement invariance of the BSMAS, SABAS, and IGDS-SF9 across the two subcultures. The original unidimensional structures of BSMAS, SABAS and IGDS-SF9 were confirmed through confirmatory factorial analysis in both subcultures. The MGCFA results showed that the unidimensional structures of the BSMAS and IGDS-SF9 were invariant across the two Chinese cultural areas (Hong Kong and Taiwan). However, the measurement invariance of the SABAS was established after some model modifications. In conclusion, the present study found that the Chinese BSMAS, SABAS, and IGDS-SF9 were all adequate instruments to validly assess internet-related addictions among university students. The three brief instruments used for assessing addictions to social media, smartphone applications, and online gaming are valid and psychometrically robust across two Chinese subcultures and can be used by healthcare professionals in these regions.

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Internet gaming disorder (IGD) and smartphone addiction: parent intervention trial
Marshall, B., Warburton, W., Kangas, M., & Sweller, N. (2024) · Australian Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1080/00049530.2024.2396961 · Cited by 10
“The SABAS has been validated and widely used in both adolescent (Csibi et al., 2017; Leung et al., 2020; Lin et al., 2019; Mason et al., 2022; Nurmala et al., 2022) and primary school (mean age = 10.37 years) populations (Chen et al., 2020).”
Influential
Validation of the Internet Gaming Disorder Scale–Short-Form and the Gaming Disorder Test in Singapore
Chew, P. K. H., Naidu, K. N. C., Shi, J. C., & Zhang, M. W. B. (2025) · Asian Journal of Social Health and Behavior · doi:10.4103/shb.shb_327_24 · Cited by 8
Fear, Stress, Susceptibility, and Problematic Social Media Use Explain Motivation for COVID-19 Preventive Behaviors Among Patients With Stroke and Their Caregivers
Kukreti, S., Hsieh, M., Liu, C., Chen, J., Chen, Y., Hsieh, M.-T., Lin, C., & Griffiths, M. D. (2024) · INQUIRY The Journal of Health Care Organization Provision and Financing · doi:10.1177/00469580231225030 · Cited by 8
“39,40 Other covariates.”
Self-citation
The wild west of measurement: Exploring problematic technology use cut off scores and their relation to psychosocial and behavioural outcomes in adolescence
Connolly, T., Atherton, G., Cross, L., Piovesan, A., & Kaye, L. K. (2021) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2021.106965 · Cited by 11
A Machine Learning Based Approach to Predict Online Gaming Addiction in the Context of Bangladesh
Islam, S., Tusher, A. N., Mia, M. S., & Rahman, M. S. (2022) · International Conference on Computing, Communication and Networking Technologies (ICCCNT) · doi:10.1109/icccnt54827.2022.9984508 · Cited by 8
“001) and performance measures (reaction time on the video game) of all subjects [5][9].”
Background
Novel hybrid approaches to measure smartphone addiction—Application of statistical and triangular fuzzy techniques
Sama, H., & Kalvakolanu, S. (2020) · Journal of Public Affairs · doi:10.1002/pa.2425 · Cited by 8
Factor structure and psychometric properties of an Arabic version of the Internet Gaming Disorder Scale, short form (IGDS-SF9)
Keshky, M. E. S. E., & Alballa, T. (2023) · Frontiers in Public Health · doi:10.3389/fpubh.2023.1231550 · Cited by 9
The Gaming Disorder Test and Gaming Disorder Scale for Adolescents: Translation and validation among Vietnamese young adults
Ruckwongpatr, K., Lee, Y.-H., Đăng, T. N., Pham, L. A., Griffiths, M. D., Pakpour, A. H., Lin, C., Huang, Y.-T., Chen, J., Lei, S.-M., et al. (2024) · Psicologia Reflexão e Crítica · doi:10.1186/s41155-024-00328-9 · Cited by 8
“Total scores are calculated by summing the items, and a higher total score reflects a greater risk of smartphone addiction (Leung et al., 2020).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialSelf-citation
How Peer Victimization in Childhood Affects Social Networking Addiction in Adulthood: An Examination of the Mediating Roles of Social Anxiety and Perceived Loneliness
Cui, K., & YIP, P. S. F. (2024) · Deviant Behavior · doi:10.1080/01639625.2024.2317902 · Cited by 7
“From the full list of 3,072 colleges obtained from the website of the Ministry of Education of the People’s Republic of China, we selected 10 schools in eastern, central, and western China respectively by using a simple random sampling method.”
Influential
Psychological features of adolescent digital activity on the example of social networks: the review of foreign studies
Shubin, S. B. (2020) · Педагогика и психология образования · doi:10.31862/2500-297x-2020-3-173-191 · Cited by 10
COVID-19 lockdown related stress among young adults: The role of drug use disorder, neurotic health symptoms, and pathological smartphone use
Okechukwu, G.-P., Nnam, M. U., Obadimu, C. E., Iloma, D. O., Offu, P. O., Okpata, F., & Nwakanma, E. U. (2022) · Journal of Forensic Psychology Research and Practice · doi:10.1080/24732850.2022.2102956 · Cited by 7
“A good explanation to this is linked to COVID-19 transmission fear and high death tolls (Alvarez, 2020; Ahorsu et al., 2022; Chen et al., 2020; Leung et al., 2020; WHO, 2020; Wong et al., 2020).”
Background
Network modeling of problematic social media use components in college student social media users
Chen, J., Su, T., Dong, J., Li, Y., Feng, J., Chen, Y., & Liu, G. (2025) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2024.1386845 · Cited by 7
Association between problematic social media use and psychological distress among college students: a cross-sectional study in China exploring the mediating role of eating disorders
Hu, N., Xiao, X., & Soh, K. L. (2025) · BMJ Open · doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2024-092863 · Cited by 7
“27 In this study, the Cronbach’s alpha coefficient for the BSMAS was 0.900.”
Influential
Problematic Social Media Use and Mental Distress among Indonesian and Taiwanese University Students: Comparing Problematic Generalized Use and Specific Problematic YouTube Use
Nurmala, I., Muthmainnah, M., Hsieh, G.-J., Salim, L. A., Nadia, A., Devi, Y. P., Chen, C., Huang, R.-Y., Chen, J., Griffiths, M. D., et al. (2025) · International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction · doi:10.1007/s11469-025-01517-y · Cited by 6
“The psychometric properties of the BSMAS are widely supported in the literature (Huang et al., 2024a, b; Ruckwongpatr et al., 2024), including the Indonesian version (Pramukti et al., 2023) and Chinese version (Chen et al., 2020a, b; Leung et al., 2020).”
Self-citation
From attachment insecurity to problematic social network site use: The mediating roles of fear of missing out and lower psychological need satisfaction
Tseng, C.-K., & Huang, Y. (2025) · Acta Psychologica · doi:10.1016/j.actpsy.2025.105630 · Cited by 8
Game‐related behaviors among children and adolescents after school closure during the COVID‐19 pandemic: A cross‐sectional study
Yamamoto, N., Morimoto, Y., Kinoshita, H., Kumazaki, H., Honda, S., Iwanaga, R., Imamura, A., & Ozawa, H. (2022) · Psychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences Reports · doi:10.1002/pcn5.37 · Cited by 6
“36 Several useful scales have been developed for IGD as defined by the DSM ‐ 5 37,38 : the Bergen Social Media Addiction Scale (BSMAS), 39 the Smartphone Application ‐ Based Addiction Scale (SABAS), 40 and the Internet Gaming Disorder Scale ‐ Short Form (IGDS ‐ SF9).”
Method
Demographic and Psychosocial Factors associated with Internet Addiction among the Pakistani Population during COVID-19: A Web-Based Survey
Lakhdir, M. P. A., Hameed, A. N., Hasnani, F. B., Angez, M., Nawaz, M. T., Khan, M. M. H., Peerwani, G., Nathwani, A. A., & Azam, S. I. (2022) · INQUIRY The Journal of Health Care Organization Provision and Financing · doi:10.1177/00469580221138671 · Cited by 10
Alexithymia and internet gaming disorder: The mediating role of internalizing and externalizing problems
Liu, Y., Qiu, Z., & van den Wildenberg, W. P. M. (2023) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-023-05113-y · Cited by 10
“The validated Chinese version was administered in this study (Leung et al., 2020), and a score higher than 31 indicates the presence of IGD (Qin et al., 2020 ).”
Problematic smartphone use is related to depression and anxiety: A transdiagnostic and three-sample network analysis
Guo, Z., Qiu, R., Yang, T., Gong, Y., Li, Y., & Zhu, X. (2025) · Addictive Behaviors · doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2025.108498 · Cited by 7
The role of eHealth literacy in psychological distress and health-related quality of life in adolescents in Hong Kong: The potential mediation of screen-based lifestyles
Yang, X., Huang, Y., Li, S., Yeung, K. Y., & Zhang, L. (2025) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2025.120421 · Cited by 7
The relationship between social media addiction and emotional appetite: a cross-sectional study among young adults in Turkey
Sevim, S., Gümüş, D., & Kızıl, M. (2024) · Public Health Nutrition · doi:10.1017/s1368980024000466 · Cited by 5
“Such an inclination can contribute to challenges in emotion regulation (12,13) .”
Background
Just a few more minutes: Longitudinal and cross-national perspectives on the role of online identity bubbles in addictive internet use
Savolainen, I., Brailovskaia, J., Sirola, A., Celuch, M., & Oksanen, A. (2025) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2025.108555 · Cited by 5
A Network Analysis of the Relationship between Dark Triad Traits and Social Media Addiction in Adults
Wang, M., Su, Y., Yang, S., Xu, K., Zhang, S., Hong, X., & Zuo, S. (2025) · International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction · doi:10.1007/s11469-024-01425-7 · Cited by 6
Mediating Effect of WhatsApp Addiction Between Social Loneliness and Preference for Online Social Interaction: A Cross-cultural Study
Nagar, K., Singh, G., & Singh, R. (2021) · Global Business Review · doi:10.1177/09721509211055603 · Cited by 5
“Existing research about addiction mainly focused on smartphone addiction (Leung et al., 2020).”
The role of attentional bias toward negative emotional information and social anxiety in problematic social media use
Zhao, J., Zhou, Z., Lin, Z., Sun, B., Wu, X., & Fu, S. (2023) · Journal of Psychosocial Nursing and Mental Health Services · doi:10.3928/02793695-20221122-02 · Cited by 5
Instruments Assessing Problematic Use of the Internet and Their Associations with Psychological Distress among Ghanaian University Students
Hunag, Y.-T., Ahorsu, D. K., Adjaottor, E. S., Addo, F.-M., Griffiths, M. D., Pakpour, A. H., & Lin, C. (2024) · International Journal of Mental Health Promotion · doi:10.32604/ijmhp.2024.057049 · Cited by 6
Self-citation
Perceived Information Distortion about COVID-19 Vaccination and Addictive Social Media Use among Social Media Users in Hong Kong: The Moderating Roles of Functional Literacy and Critical Literacy
Xie, L., Lee, E. W. J., Fong, V. W. I., Hui, K. H., Xin, M., & Mo, P. K. H. (2022) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph19148550 · Cited by 5
“The Chinese version of BSMAS has been validated among the Hong Kong population [44], which examines the experience of social media usage over the past three months in this study with 5-point Likert response options from 1 (very rarely) to 5 (very often).”
Method
Prevalence of social media addiction and its related factors among students of nursing and midwifery in Iranian context: a cross-sectional study
Toumari, R., Ramezani-Badr, F., Bulfone, G., & Amini, K. (2023) · Journal of Multidisciplinary Care · doi:10.34172/jmdc.1132 · Cited by 4
Latent Profile Analysis: Mattering Concepts, Problematic Internet Use, and Adaptability in Chinese University Students
Wang, J., Chen, X., Huang, M., Liu, R., Chen, I., & Flett, G. L. (2025) · International Journal of Mental Health Promotion · doi:10.32604/ijmhp.2025.058503 · Cited by 4
Self-citation
Let me check my phone: smartphone addiction and its links to life satisfaction and psychological resilience
Kartol, A., & Üztemur, S. (2025) · British Journal of Guidance and Counselling · doi:10.1080/03069885.2024.2436030 · Cited by 4
“The use of the internet poses a threat due to potentially addictive features (e.g. accessibility, anonymity, convenience, etc.) and online activities (e.g. gaming, gambling, social media use, etc.) (Chen et al., 2020a; Leung et al., 2020).”
Psychometric validation of the Jordanian version of the Bergen Social Media Addiction Scale (BSMAS)
Al-Dassean, K. A., & Murad, O. S. (2025) · Cogent Psychology · doi:10.1080/23311908.2025.2504763 · Cited by 4
“Construct validity was assessed through CFa, yielding results that align with previous studies (leung et al., 2020; lin et al., 2017; Monacis et al., 2017; naher et al., 2022; stănculescu, 2022). these findings indicate that BsMas possesses a unidimensional structure, supported by favorable fit…”
Influential
Online Psychology Beyond Addiction and Gaming: A Global Look at Mental Health and Internet-Related Technologies
Błachnio, A., Przepiórka, A., Gorbaniuk, O., McNeill, M., Bendayan, R., Durak, M., Şenol-Durak, E., Ben‐Ezra, M., Benvenuti, M., Angeluci, A. C. B., et al. (2022) · Frontiers research topics · doi:10.3389/978-2-88974-249-3 · Cited by 4
Smartphone Application‐Based Addiction Scale: Psychometric Evidence Across Nine Asian Regions Using Advanced Analytic Methods
Chen, I., Pramukti, I., Gan, W. Y., Ruckwongpatr, K., Pham, L. A., Huang, P., Mamun, M. A., Ullah, I., Jahrami, H., Lin, C., et al. (2024) · Brain and Behavior · doi:10.1002/brb3.70133 · Cited by 4
“…in Hong Kong (I. H. Chen, Strong, et al. 2020; Leung et al. 2020; Yam et al. 2019), Chinese version in Taiwan (I. H. Chen, Strong, et al. 2020; Leung et al. 2020), English version in Malaysia (Tung et al. 2022), Bahasa Indonesian version in Indonesia (Nurmala et al. 2022), Thai version in…”
InfluentialSelf-citation
The relationship between problematic internet use and psychological distress in older Chinese teachers (40+) during different stages of the COVID-19 pandemic: three cross-sectional studies
Chen, X., Wang, L.-F., Liao, X.-L., Wang, S., Yang, L., & Chen, I. (2024) · Frontiers in Public Health · doi:10.3389/fpubh.2024.1442852 · Cited by 5
Self-citation
Prevalence of internet gaming addiction and its association with sleep quality in medical students
Shakya, M., Singh, R., Chauhan, A., Rure, D., & Shrivastava, A. (2023) · Industrial Psychiatry Journal · doi:10.4103/ipj.ipj_236_23 · Cited by 5
“[19] Concurrently, the MSQ was administered to all undergraduate students at our local university.”
Study protocol: A national cross-sectional study on psychology and behaviour investigation of Chinese residents in 2024, PBICRPreprint
Fan, S., Li, Y., Dong, F., Chen, W., Han, Q., Duan, T., Zhang, J., Sun, Q., Bao, Y., Li, Y., et al. (2025) · medRxiv · doi:10.1101/2025.01.14.25320520 · Cited by 4
Psychometric validation of the Farsi Bergen social media addiction scale (BSMAS) among Iranian adults
Sadeghi, S., Shalani, B., Firouzabadi, S. M., Babaei, Z., Namazi, S. A., & Pouretemad, H. (2025) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/s12889-025-23081-9 · Cited by 5
“The BSMAS has been adapted into several languages in various continents, including Korea [19], Hong Kong and Taiwan [20], Hungary [21], Italy [22], Spain [23], the USA, UK, New Zealand, and Australia [24].”
The Role of Fear of Negative Evaluation and Loneliness in Linking Insecure Attachment to Social Media Addiction: Evidence from Chinese University Students
Xu, D., & He, R. (2025) · Brain Sciences · doi:10.3390/brainsci15080843 · Cited by 4
“At the same time, intense academic pressure, family expectations, and limited access to real-world social resources may exacerbate feelings of loneliness, thereby reinforcing emotionally motivated and compensatory use of media platforms [69].”
The Role of Psychological Flexibility in Adolescent Internet Gaming Disorder and Social Media Addiction: Emotional Regulation and Stress Coping Mechanisms
Wang, Y., Li, Q., Su, J., & Yang, X. (2026) · International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction · doi:10.1007/s11469-026-01644-0 · Cited by 6
Cross-Cultural Analysis of Social Media Addiction Likelihood and Social Media Designs in the US and China
Ong, E., & Lee, P. (2022) · Journal of Student Research · doi:10.47611/jsrhs.v11i3.3743 · Cited by 3
The Relationship between Teacher Candidates' Technology Addictions and Their Social Connectedness: A Data-Mining Approach
Karabatak, S., & Alanoğlu, M. (2022) · Malaysian Online Journal of Educational Technology · doi:10.52380/mojet.2022.10.4.361 · Cited by 3
Exploring the relationship between college students’ adaptability and nomophobia
Ren, S.-X., He, J., Liu, T., & Zhang, D. (2024) · Behavior and Information Technology · doi:10.1080/0144929x.2024.2314755 · Cited by 1
“While mobile phones have tremendously enhanced our quality of life (Leung et al. 2020), their negative influences, such as excessive use, should not be ignored.”
Cross-cultural Invariance of the Internet Gaming Disorder Scale-Short-Form (IGDS9-SF) in Seven Latin American Countries
Blandon, J. A., Puerta-Cortés, D. X., Carmona, A., Ivern, J., Vilca, L. W., Carbonell, X., & Caycho‐Rodríguez, T. (2024) · International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction · doi:10.1007/s11469-024-01376-z · Cited by 3
“In the case of the IGDS9-SF, researchers have evaluated its invariance across different populations, finding supportive evidence for a one-factor model and MI between: (1) Sri Lanka, Turkey, Australia, and USA (Ali et al., 2022); (2) USA, India, and UK (Pontes et al., 2017); (3) Hong Kong and Taiwan (Leung et al., 202…”
Influential
Relationship between Self-Esteem, Area of Study, Phubbing, and Perceived Social Media Addiction among University Students
Allahverdi, F. Z. (2023) · OPUS Toplum Araştırmaları Dergisi · doi:10.26466/opusjsr.1253595 · Cited by 3
Sosyal medya bağımlılığı ölçeği-yetişkin formu: güvenirlik genelleme meta analizi
DOĞAN, İ. (2024) · Journal of Dependence · doi:10.51982/bagimli.1390125 · Cited by 3
Psychometric evaluation of the Chinese version of Risky Loot Box Index (RLI) and cross-sectional investigation among gamers of China
Guo, P., Liu, Y., Tan, L., Xu, Y., Huang, H., & Deng, Q. (2025) · PeerJ · doi:10.7717/peerj.19164 · Cited by 4
“The Chinese version of the IGDS-9SF is a self-rating scale used to assess the severity of IGD symptoms ( Leung et al., 2020 ; Yam et al., 2019 ).”

Authors: Leung, H., Pakpour, A. H., Strong, C., Lin, Y.-C., Tsai, M.-C., Griffiths, M. D., Lin, C.-Y., & Chen, I.-H.
Affiliations: Hong Kong Polytechnic University (HK)
Qazvin University of Medical Sciences (IR)
National Cheng Kung University Hospital (TW)
National Taipei University of Education (TW)
Nottingham Trent University (GB)
Qufu Normal University (CN)
Corresponding author: Lin, Chung-Ying
ORCID: Leung, Hildie
Pakpour, Amir H.
Strong, Carol
Lin, Yi-Ching
Tsai, Meng-Che
Griffiths, Mark D.
Lin, Chung-Ying
Chen, I-Hua
Venue: Addictive Behaviors
Publisher: Elsevier BV
Published: 2020-02
Volume: 101
Pages: 105969
ISSN: 0306-4603 (ISSN-L)
DOI: 10.1016/j.addbeh.2019.04.027
OpenAlex: W2941523253
Semantic Scholar: 69ecdf915be4d6682db4658ea658e8fff48a1d0a
Cited by: 290
References: 64
Citations by year: 2026: 36 · 2025: 56 · 2024: 42 · 2023: 48 · 2022: 50 · 2021: 32 · 2020: 20
FWCI: 54.38
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: green
urn.kb.se
Licence: other-oa
www.elsevier.com/tdm/userlicense/1.0/ (tdm)
www.elsevier.com/legal/tdmrep-license (tdm)
Locations: Addictive Behaviors (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Nottingham Trent University's Institutional Repository (Nottingham Trent Repository) (acceptedVersion)
Diva portal (Dalarna University Library) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
Funders: Hong Kong Polytechnic University
Topics: Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Impact of Technology on Adolescents
Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › Management Science and Operations Research › Psychometric Methodologies and Testing
Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Gambling Behavior and Treatments
Keywords: social media addiction, smartphone addiction, internet gaming disorder, Bergen Social Media Addiction Scale, measurement invariance, cross-cultural validation, Hong Kong, Taiwan, university students, behavioral addiction
MeSH terms: Internet Addiction Disorder, Adult, Factor Analysis, Statistical, Female, Hong Kong, Humans, Male, Psychiatric Status Rating Scales, Psychometrics, Students, Taiwan, Reproducibility of Results, Young Adult

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Measurement invariance across young adults from Hong Kong and Taiwan among three internet-related addiction scales: Bergen Social Media Addiction Scale (BSMAS), Smartphone Application-Based Addiction Scale (SABAS), and Internet Gaming Disorder Scale-Short Form (IGDS-SF9) (Study Part A)

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