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The Mediterranean Diet, its Components, and Cardiovascular Disease
Open accessAbstract
One of the best-studied diets for cardiovascular health is the Mediterranean diet. This consists of fish, monounsaturated fats from olive oil, fruits, vegetables, whole grains, legumes/nuts, and moderate alcohol consumption. The Mediterranean diet has been shown to reduce the burden, or even prevent the development, of cardiovascular disease, breast cancer, depression, colorectal cancer, diabetes, obesity, asthma, erectile dysfunction, and cognitive decline. This diet is also known to improve surrogates of cardiovascular disease, such as waist-to-hip ratio, lipids, and markers of inflammation, as well as primary cardiovascular disease outcomes such as death and events in both observational and randomized controlled trial data. These enhancements easily rival those seen with more established tools used to fight cardiovascular disease such as aspirin, beta-blockers, angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors, and exercise. However, it is unclear if the Mediterranean diet offers cardiovascular disease benefit from its individual constituents or in aggregate. Furthermore, the potential benefit of the Mediterranean diet or its components is not yet validated by concrete cardiovascular disease endpoints in randomized trials or observational studies. This review will focus on the effects of the whole and parts of the Mediterranean diet with regard to both population-based and experimental data highlighting cardiovascular disease morbidity or mortality and cardiovascular disease surrogates when hard outcomes are not available. Our synthesis will highlight the potential for the Mediterranean diet to act as a key player in cardiovascular disease prevention, and attempt to identify certain aspects of the diet that are particularly beneficial for cardioprotection.
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“Specific dietary patterns, such as low-glycemic index (GI), Mediterranean, and ketogenic diets, have shown promise in improving insulin sensitivity and hormonal balance in PCOS [10–12].”
From Nutritional and herbal interventions for polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS): a comprehensive review of dietary approaches, macronutrient impact, and herbal medicine in management (2025) · cites this paper as [12]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
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“This diet, characterized by olive oil [63], abundant fruits and vegetables, whole grains, legumes, nuts, fish, and moderate wine consumption, is associated with a 25% reduction in overall mortality and significantly lower rates of cardiovascular diseases [64].”
From The Power of Environment: A Comprehensive Review of the Exposome's Role in Healthy Aging, Longevity, and Preventive Medicine-Lessons from Blue Zones and Cilento (2025) · cites this paper as [64]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
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“The Mediterranean diet is characterized by high intake of polyphenols and unsaturated fats, with most of the beneficial effects from this diet being attributed to the high polyphenol intake [6,7].”
From Polyphenol Microbial Metabolites Exhibit Gut and Blood–Brain Barrier Permeability and Protect Murine Microglia against LPS-Induced Inflammation (2019) · cites this paper as [7]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
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“Diets such as the Mediterranean diet or the DASH diet may further enhance these effects [257].”
From Dietary Nitrate-Rich Vegetables as Natural Modulators of Health: Mechanisms and Benefits in Ageing Populations (2026) · cites this paper as [257]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredIn the citing paper
“Moreover, the MD consists of many components rich in mono-unsaturated fatty acid such as oleic acid, in olive oil, omega-3-polyunsaturated fatty acid, such as alpha- linolenic acid in tree nuts, like walnuts, high amounts of flavonoids and antioxidants found in fruits and vegetables and high amounts of dietary fibers that have a great impact on the composition of gut microbiota—all considered to”
From Mediterranean Diet as an Antioxidant: The Impact on Metabolic Health and Overall Wellbeing (2021) · cites this paper as [12]
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3 retracted
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“The benefits of the MD are not due to exclusively one component, but it is the whole food pattern as well as the wide range of traditional cuisine and lifestyle (4).”
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“A previous prospective study in Spain showed the potential protective role of polyunsaturated and monounsaturated fatty acids in the development of diabetic complications in a small sample of patients with type 1 and type 2 diabetes [18] Olive oil is one of the main components of the Mediterranean diet, a diet that ha…”
Magriplis, E., Panagiotakos, D. B., Kyrou, I., Tsioufis, C. P., Mitsopoulou, A.-V., Karageorgou, D., Dimakopoulos, I., Bakogianni, I., Chourdakis, M., Micha, R., et al. (2020) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu12030853 · Cited by 32
“The Mediterranean diet has been shown to reduce CVD events [27,28] and improve surrogates of CVD, such as inflammatory markers [29], which can partly explain the moderating effect shown in this study.”
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“General nutritional recommendations include increasing frequency intake of fruit, vegetables, legumes and fish, meantime decreasing meat consumption and introducing grain food, also according to the principles of the Mediterranean diet [60].”
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Georgousopoulou, E. N., Kouli, G.-M., Panagiotakos, D. B., Kalogeropoulou, A. A., Zana, A., Chrysohoou, C. A., Tsigos, C., Tousoulis, D. M., Stefanadis, C., & Pitsavos, C. (2016) · International Journal of Cardiology · doi:10.1016/j.ijcard.2016.08.007 · Cited by 35
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“, oleic acid or oleate (OL; C18:1), is a major component of olive oil, which is commonly associated with the health-promoting effects of the Mediterranean diet.(1-4) Both saturated and unsaturated fatty acids are known to stimulate autophagy, an adaptive response to stress that is common to all eukaryotes and consists…”
BackgroundInfluentialHypotensive peptides derived from plant proteins
Shobako, N. (2021) · Peptides · doi:10.1016/j.peptides.2021.170573 · Cited by 37
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Gonçalves, C., Moreira, H., & Santos, R. G. S. D. (2024) · AIMS Public Health · doi:10.3934/publichealth.2024005 · Cited by 37
“Those results align with the findings of other authors [32,41,42] and can be partly explained by components of the MD such as a high prevalence of unsaturated fats in sources of fiber and protein, a scarcity of saturated fats, and a richness of fruits, vegetables, whole grains, nuts, and legumes,…”
Cardiovascular Disease and the Mediterranean Diet: Insights into Sex-Specific Responses
Pant, A., Chew, D. P., Mamas, M. A., & Zaman, S. J. (2024) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu16040570 · Cited by 33
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“The Mediterranean diet, which consists of fish, monounsaturated fats from olive oil, a high omega-3-to-omega6 ratio, fruits, vegetables, whole grains, legumes/nuts, and moderate alcohol consumption, has been shown to reduce the risk and prevent the development of depression, diabetes, obesity, and breast cancer [51,52…”
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“Moreover, depending on the diet context, bread can be inserted in a healthy diet, such as in the case of a Mediterranean diet, which is knowingly associated with improved cardiovascular and cognitive health, and prevention of diabetes, depression, obesity, some types of cancer, among other chronic diseases [63].”
BackgroundBhaswant, M., Brown, L., McAinch, A. J., & Mathai, M. L. (2017) · Molecular Nutrition & Food Research · doi:10.1002/mnfr.201700478 · Cited by 30
“The Mediterranean diet is one widely-studied example where increased intake of fish, monounsaturated fats from olive oil, fruits, vegetables, whole grains, legumes/nuts, and moderate alcohol consumption reduced the incidence of cardiovascular disease, diabetes, and obesity [13].”
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Franconi, F., Campesi, I., & Romani, A. (2020) · Cardiovascular Therapeutics · doi:10.1155/2020/6719301 · Cited by 31
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BackgroundEating Behaviors, Depressive Symptoms and Lifestyle in University Students in Poland
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“Individual components of the Mediterranean diet, particularly fish, whole grains, fruit, and vegetables, have been found to have a positive effect against CVD in cohort studies [41].”
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“In addition, other nutrients included in these foods such as unsaturated fatty acids and antioxidants seem to attenuate the condition and inflammation produced by the systemic inflammatory response (288, 289).”
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“The Mediterranean diet encourages the consumption of fish, unsaturated fats, whole grains, legumes, nuts, vegetables, and fruits [12].”
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“49 A recent study showed that greater amounts of olive oil consumption The upper triangle contains the pooled effect sizes expressed as risk ratios and their 95% confidence intervals of the direct comparisons available in our network.”
BackgroundKhalfa, A., Tiali, A., Zemour, L., Fatah, A., & Mekki, K. (2017) · International Journal of Gynecology & Obstetrics · doi:10.1002/ijgo.12206 · Cited by 25
Net K + secretion in the thick ascending limb of mice on a low-Na, high-K diet
Wang, B., Wen, D., Li, H., Wang‐France, J., & Sansom, S. C. (2017) · Kidney International · doi:10.1016/j.kint.2017.04.009 · Cited by 25
Jackson, J. K., Patterson, A. J., MacDonald‐Wicks, L. K., Bondonno, C. P., Blekkenhorst, L. C., Ward, N. C., Hodgson, J. M., Byles, J., & McEvoy, M. (2018) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu10081005 · Cited by 25
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Jacobsen, S. S., Vistisen, D., Vilsbøll, T., Bruun, J. M., & Ewers, B. (2020) · Nutrition Journal · doi:10.1186/s12937-020-00645-6 · Cited by 25
Adherence to the Mediterranean Diet and Determinants Among Pregnant Women: The NELA Cohort
Suárez-Martínez, C., Yagüe‐Guirao, G., Santaella, M., Peso‐Echarri, P., Vioqué, J., Morales, E., García‐Marcos, L., Martínez‐Graciá, C., & The NELA Study Group (2021) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu13041248 · Cited by 23
“…investigated due to its beneficial effects and protective role against diseases, demonstrated in numerous high-quality studies, reviews [6,14,15], and meta-analyses [16–19], making it the most widely studied and evidence-based dietary approach to healthy eating and disease prevention [17,19,20].”
Examining the role of systemic chronic inflammation in diet and sleep relationship
Hepsomali, P., & Groeger, J. A. (2022) · Journal of Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1177/02698811221112932 · Cited by 26
“These nutrients have anti-inflammatory, neuroprotective and prebiotic properties (González et al., 2011; Widmer et al., 2015) and also are associated with reduced systemic inflammation markers, such as the C-reactive protein (CRP) (Ma et al., 2008; Sureda et al., 2018; Wisnuwardani et al., 2020).”
BackgroundCaso, D., Canova, L., Capasso, M., & Bianchi, M. (2023) · Applied Psychology Health and Well-Being · doi:10.1111/aphw.12470 · Cited by 24
Recent Advances in the Prevention and Screening of Preeclampsia
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Ma, J., Zhao, D., Wang, X., Ma, C., Feng, K., Zhang, S., Chen, Y., Zhu, Y., Gao, X., Zhao, B., et al. (2018) · Journal of Cardiovascular Pharmacology · doi:10.1097/fjc.0000000000000642 · Cited by 24
Greco, A., Brugnera, A., Adorni, R., D’Αddario, M., Fattirolli, F., Franzelli, C., Giannattasio, C., Maloberti, A., Zanatta, F., & Steca, P. (2021) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu13020634 · Cited by 24
“Data about the intake of legumes are less consistent but go in the same direction [9,10].”
BackgroundTurner, A. L., Michaelson, L. V., Shewry, P. R., Lovegrove, A., & Spencer, J. P. E. (2020) · Clinical Nutrition · doi:10.1016/j.clnu.2020.07.026 · Cited by 23
Dietary Supplements: Types, Health Benefits, Industry and Regulation
Hassan, S., Egbuna, C., Tijjani, H., Ifemeje, J. C., Olisah, M. C., Patrick-Iwuanyanwu, K. C., Onyeike, P. C., & Ephraim-Emmanuel, B. C. (2020) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-42319-3_3 · Cited by 30
Diet and Management of Type II Diabetes Mellitus in the United Kingdom: A Narrative Review
Rajput, S. A., Ashraff, S., & Siddiqui, M. (2022) · Diabetology · doi:10.3390/diabetology3010006 · Cited by 29
Rahmani, Y., Mohammadi, S., Babanejad, M., Rai, A., Zalei, B., & Shahmohammadi, A. (2017) · Ethiopian Journal of Health Sciences · doi:10.4314/ejhs.v27i4.15 · Cited by 23
“These diseases caused the death of 16 million people (30%) and made 293 million people (11%) disabled in 2010 (1,2).”
BackgroundAzad, B. J., Daneshzad, E., Meysamie, A. P., & Koohdani, F. (2020) · Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition · doi:10.1080/10408398.2020.1733484 · Cited by 23
Bracale, R., Vaccaro, C. M., Coletta, V., Cricelli, C. A., Gamaleri, F. C., Parazzini, F., & Carruba, M. O. (2019) · Eating and Weight Disorders - Studies on Anorexia Bulimia and Obesity · doi:10.1007/s40519-019-00807-4 · Cited by 25
The Role of Pulses in Cardiovascular Disease Risk for Adults With Diabetes
Lukus, P. K., Doma, K. M., & Duncan, A. M. (2020) · American Journal of Lifestyle Medicine · doi:10.1177/1559827620916698 · Cited by 28
“Characterized not only by legumes (which include pulses) but also by fruits, vegetables, nuts, fish, and olive oil, the Mediterranean diet has been recommended by the American Heart Association and the American Diabetes Association as a diet for improvement of CVD and diabetes risk.(30,31) The Mediterranean diet has b…”
BackgroundHayakawa, M., Motokawa, K., Mikami, Y., Yamamoto, K., Shirobe, M., Edahiro, A., Iwasaki, M., Ohara, Y., Watanabe, Y., Kawai, H., et al. (2021) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu13020641 · Cited by 22
“However, the Mediterranean foods used in the study included olive oil, nuts, and a moderate amount of wine [35], which are different from a high DVS diet in our study, which was developed based on a typical Japanese diet.”
BackgroundO’Kennedy, N., Duss, R., & Duttaroy, A. K. (2021) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu13072184 · Cited by 21
“In fact, diets close to the Mediterranean diet profile (including high tomato intake) are associated with a reduced burden of ED [81].”
BackgroundGiroli, M., Werba, J. P., Risé, P., Porro, B., Sala, A., Amato, M., Tremoli, E., Bonomi, A., & Veglia, F. (2021) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu13072389 · Cited by 26
“73 Total medicines (median [min; max]) 5 [3;9] 5 [3; 9] 5 [3; 9] 0.”
Rossi, T. (2015) · Journal of Bioanalysis & Biomedicine · doi:10.4172/1948-593x.s12-006 · Cited by 22
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Zhu, R., Fan, Z., Dong, Y., Liu, M., Wang, L., & Haikun, P. (2018) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu10060694 · Cited by 23
“Nuts and dried fruit (DF) are traditional dietary components in many countries, and have been included in healthy diet patterns, such as the Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension (DASH) diet [1,2] and the Mediterranean diet (MedDiet) [3], as they are a good source of dietary fibre, potassium, magnesium and antioxida…”
Nilholm, C., Roth, B., Höglund, P., Blennow, K., Englund, E. M., Hansson, O., Zetterberg, H., & Ohlsson, B. (2018) · Nutrition Research · doi:10.1016/j.nutres.2018.08.002 · Cited by 22
Jackson, J. K., MacDonald‐Wicks, L. K., McEvoy, M., Forder, P., Holder, C., Oldmeadow, C. J., Byles, J., & Patterson, A. J. (2019) · Public Health Nutrition · doi:10.1017/s1368980019002842 · Cited by 22
“One of the most widely studied dietary patterns linked to CVD prevention is the Mediterranean diet (MedDiet), which is characterised by high intakes of fish, olive oil, fruits, vegetables and whole grains, and a moderate intake of alcohol(7,8).”
BackgroundTeixeira, A. L., Martins, L. B., Berk, M., & Bauer, M. E. (2022) · Clinical Science · doi:10.1042/cs20211106 · Cited by 22
Effects of palm oil consumption on biomarkers of glucose metabolism: A systematic review
Zulkiply, S. H., Balasubramaniam, V. R. M. T., Bakar, N. A. A., Rashed, A. A., & Ismail, S. R. (2019) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0220877 · Cited by 24
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Adherence to Mediterranean diet and advanced glycation endproducts in patients with diabetes
Grahovac, M., Kumrić, M., Vilović, M., Martinović, D., Krešo, A., Kurir, T. T., Vrdoljak, J., Prižmić, K., & Božić, J. (2021) · World Journal of Diabetes · doi:10.4239/wjd.v12.i11.1942 · Cited by 24
Fat Quality Index and Risk of Cardiovascular Disease in the Sun Project
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“…the Mediterranean diet is an effective and feasible tool to prevent CVD (4-6) by different mechanisms including reductions in blood pressure, body mass index (BMI), waist circumference, oxidative stress, low-grade inflammatory status and improvements in lipid profiles and vascular functions (7).”
He, M. S., Shen, J.-X., Zhang, C., Chen, Y., Wang, W., & Tao, K. (2020) · Medical Science Monitor · doi:10.12659/msm.923123 · Cited by 21
“Background Cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) have a significant effect on human health [1], with high morbidity and mortality rates and a heavy economic burden on public health.”
BackgroundSuhett, L. G., Hermsdorff, H. H. M., Ribeiro, S. A. V., Filgueiras, M. D. S., Shivappa, N., Hébert, J. R., & de Novaes, J. F. (2021) · European Journal of Nutrition · doi:10.1007/s00394-021-02500-8 · Cited by 21
Scavenger Receptor Class B type 1 (SR-B1) and the modifiable risk factors of stroke
Lenahan, C., Huang, L., Travis, Z. D., & Zhang, J. H. (2019) · Chinese Neurosurgical Journal · doi:10.1186/s41016-019-0178-3 · Cited by 22
Association of Dietary Inflammatory Index (DII) and Depressive Disorders
Li, R., Zhan, W., Huang, X., Liu, Z., Lv, S., Wang, J., Liang, L., & Ma, Y. (2021) · Journal of Inflammation Research · doi:10.2147/jir.s344002 · Cited by 20
“In addition, depression and hypertension are related to the imbalance of redox activity signaling and increased immune-inflammatory response.(30,31) These diseases may lead to excessive activation of the hypothalamic-pituitaryadrenal axis, leading to increased secretion of corticotro-”
BackgroundDietary Risk Factors and Eating Behaviors in Peripheral Arterial Disease (PAD)
Cecchini, A. L., Biscetti, F., Rando, M. M., Nardella, E., Pecorini, G., Eraso, L. H., DiMuzio, P. J., Gasbarrini, A., Massetti, M., & Flex, A. (2022) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms231810814 · Cited by 28
“effects with a consequent reduction in atherosclerosis [176,177], especially in patients with comorbidities [178].”
BackgroundTalib, W. H., Mahmod, A. I., Awajan, D., Hamed, R. A., & Al-Yasari, I. H. (2022) · Pharmaceuticals · doi:10.3390/ph15121502 · Cited by 20
“The Mediterranean diet is a generic name for the traditional dietary patterns of the people residing in the Mediterranean region [18] and it is considered among the most nutritious dietary patterns globally, it involves fish, monounsaturated fats from olive oil, fruits, vegetables, whole grains, legumes/nuts, and mode…”
BackgroundThe role of different nutrients in the prevention and treatment of cardiovascular diseases
Tu, Z., Yang, J.-F., & Fan, C. (2024) · Frontiers in Immunology · doi:10.3389/fimmu.2024.1393378 · Cited by 26
“Related studies have reported that this dietary pattern can also improve surrogate indicators of cardiovascular disease, such as waist-to-hip ratio, blood lipids, and in fl ammatory markers, and can even have the same effect as cardiovascular prevention and treatment drugs (4).”
BackgroundModulation of the vascular endothelium functioning by dietary components, the role of epigenetics
Wojtala, M., Pirola, L., & Balcerczyk, A. (2016) · BioFactors · doi:10.1002/biof.1306 · Cited by 21
“The consumption of n-3 PUFAs (alpha linolenic acid, and its derivatives eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA)) has also been associated to beneficial effects on endothelial function and reduction of cardiovascular risk [40], although cautionary notes have been raised in the interpretation of thes…”
BackgroundSzulc-Kiełbik, I., Kiełbik, M., & Klink, M. (2017) · Immunopharmacology and Immunotoxicology · doi:10.1080/08923973.2017.1369100 · Cited by 20
Zábó, V., Lehoczki, A., Fekete, M., Szappanos, Á., Varga, P., Moizs, M., Giovannetti, G., Loscalzo, Y., Giannini, M., Polidori, M. C., et al. (2025) · GeroScience · doi:10.1007/s11357-025-01625-6 · Cited by 19
“The Mediterranean diet, characterized by high consumption of vegetables, fruits, nuts, whole grains, and olive oil, is widely recognized for its protective effects against cardiovascular diseases [54], cancer [53], and metabolic disorders [55].”
Peng, Z., Hou, T., Yang, K., Zhang, J., Mao, Y.-H., & Hou, X. (2025) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu17111769 · Cited by 21
Camera, P. A. D., Morselli, S., Cito, G., Tasso, G., Cocci, A., Laruccia, N., Travaglini, F., Fabbro, D. D., Mottola, A., Gacci, M., et al. (2017) · Urologia Journal · doi:10.5301/uj.5000255 · Cited by 19
“This diet, as soon as its begun, has shown a protective role against cardiovascular disease, diabetes, cancer onset, against the microvascular damage and dementia in many trials (1-3).”
Saad, B. (2022) · Immuno · doi:10.3390/immuno2040038 · Cited by 19
“A systematic review of 17 RCTs involving 736 subjects found significant reductions in TNF-α and hs-CRP levels after resveratrol supplementation.”
BackgroundResultInfluential
Metadata
- Authors
- Widmer, R. J., Flammer, A. J., Lerman, L. O., & Lerman, A.
- Affiliations
- Mayo Clinic (US)
- Corresponding author
- Lerman, Amir
- Venue
- The American Journal of Medicine
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2015-03
- Volume
- 128
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 229-238
- ISSN
- 0002-9343 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC4339461
- OpenAlex
- W2066595212
- Cited by
- 963
- References
- 122
- Citations by year
- 2026: 48 · 2025: 86 · 2024: 109 · 2023: 140 · 2022: 109 · 2021: 114 · 2020: 151 · 2019: 60 · 2018: 44 · 2017: 41 · 2016: 35 · 2015: 25
- FWCI
- 5.35
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- The American Journal of Medicine (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Zurich Open Repository and Archive (University of Zurich) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- Schweizerischer Nationalfonds zur Förderung der Wissenschaftlichen Forschung (PASMP3_132551)
- National Institutes of Health (92954, 085307)
- Swiss Re Foundation
- Universität Zürich
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Nutritional Studies and Diet
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Cardiology and Cardiovascular Medicine › Cardiovascular Health and Risk Factors
- Health Sciences › Nursing › Nutrition and Dietetics › Fatty Acid Research and Health
- Keywords
- Mediterranean diet, cardiovascular disease prevention, cardioprotection, olive oil, monounsaturated fatty acids, fish consumption, whole grains, Fabaceae, nuts, moderate drinking, cardiovascular risk factors, inflammatory markers, cardiovascular mortality, food components
- MeSH terms
- Cardiovascular Diseases, Humans, Metabolism, Randomized Controlled Trials as Topic, Outcome Assessment, Health Care, Diet, Mediterranean, Observational Studies as Topic
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