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The Mediterranean Diet, its Components, and Cardiovascular Disease
Open accessAbstract
One of the best-studied diets for cardiovascular health is the Mediterranean diet. This consists of fish, monounsaturated fats from olive oil, fruits, vegetables, whole grains, legumes/nuts, and moderate alcohol consumption. The Mediterranean diet has been shown to reduce the burden, or even prevent the development, of cardiovascular disease, breast cancer, depression, colorectal cancer, diabetes, obesity, asthma, erectile dysfunction, and cognitive decline. This diet is also known to improve surrogates of cardiovascular disease, such as waist-to-hip ratio, lipids, and markers of inflammation, as well as primary cardiovascular disease outcomes such as death and events in both observational and randomized controlled trial data. These enhancements easily rival those seen with more established tools used to fight cardiovascular disease such as aspirin, beta-blockers, angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors, and exercise. However, it is unclear if the Mediterranean diet offers cardiovascular disease benefit from its individual constituents or in aggregate. Furthermore, the potential benefit of the Mediterranean diet or its components is not yet validated by concrete cardiovascular disease endpoints in randomized trials or observational studies. This review will focus on the effects of the whole and parts of the Mediterranean diet with regard to both population-based and experimental data highlighting cardiovascular disease morbidity or mortality and cardiovascular disease surrogates when hard outcomes are not available. Our synthesis will highlight the potential for the Mediterranean diet to act as a key player in cardiovascular disease prevention, and attempt to identify certain aspects of the diet that are particularly beneficial for cardioprotection.
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“Specific dietary patterns, such as low-glycemic index (GI), Mediterranean, and ketogenic diets, have shown promise in improving insulin sensitivity and hormonal balance in PCOS [10–12].”
From Nutritional and herbal interventions for polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS): a comprehensive review of dietary approaches, macronutrient impact, and herbal medicine in management (2025) · cites this paper as [12]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
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“This diet, characterized by olive oil [63], abundant fruits and vegetables, whole grains, legumes, nuts, fish, and moderate wine consumption, is associated with a 25% reduction in overall mortality and significantly lower rates of cardiovascular diseases [64].”
From The Power of Environment: A Comprehensive Review of the Exposome's Role in Healthy Aging, Longevity, and Preventive Medicine-Lessons from Blue Zones and Cilento (2025) · cites this paper as [64]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
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“The Mediterranean diet is characterized by high intake of polyphenols and unsaturated fats, with most of the beneficial effects from this diet being attributed to the high polyphenol intake [6,7].”
From Polyphenol Microbial Metabolites Exhibit Gut and Blood–Brain Barrier Permeability and Protect Murine Microglia against LPS-Induced Inflammation (2019) · cites this paper as [7]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
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“Diets such as the Mediterranean diet or the DASH diet may further enhance these effects [257].”
From Dietary Nitrate-Rich Vegetables as Natural Modulators of Health: Mechanisms and Benefits in Ageing Populations (2026) · cites this paper as [257]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredIn the citing paper
“Moreover, the MD consists of many components rich in mono-unsaturated fatty acid such as oleic acid, in olive oil, omega-3-polyunsaturated fatty acid, such as alpha- linolenic acid in tree nuts, like walnuts, high amounts of flavonoids and antioxidants found in fruits and vegetables and high amounts of dietary fibers that have a great impact on the composition of gut microbiota—all considered to”
From Mediterranean Diet as an Antioxidant: The Impact on Metabolic Health and Overall Wellbeing (2021) · cites this paper as [12]
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“The following of traditional diets mainly composed with the above-mentioned healthy products, including the Mediterranean, Norwegian or Japanese diet, has been associated with decreased inflammation associated with cardiovascular disease and metabolic syndrome [169].”
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“Other analyses on the population of the PREDIMED study further showed that the Mediterranean diet seemed to reduce the expression of pro-atherogenic genes [37], cardiovascular risk surrogate markers such as waist-to-hip ratio, lipid fractions, lipoprotein particles, oxidative stress, and markers of inflammation [38,39…”
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“Moreover, the MD consists of many components rich in mono-unsaturated fatty acid such as oleic acid, in olive oil, omega-3-polyunsaturated fatty acid, such as alpha- linolenic acid in tree nuts, like walnuts, high amounts of flavonoids and antioxidants found in fruits and vegetables and high amounts of dietary fibers…”
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Chen, X., Maguire, B., Brodaty, H., & O’Leary, F. (2019) · Journal of Alzheimer s Disease · doi:10.3233/jad-180468 · Cited by 238
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Low-density lipoprotein cholesterol in a global cohort of 57,885 statin-treated patients
Gitt, A. K., Lautsch, D., Ferrières, J., Kastelein, J. J. P., Drexel, H., Horack, M., Brudi, P., Vanneste, B., Bramlage, P., Chazelle, F., et al. (2016) · Atherosclerosis · doi:10.1016/j.atherosclerosis.2016.09.004 · Cited by 116
Air pollution and skin disorders
Roberts, W. (2021) · International Journal of Women's Dermatology · doi:10.1016/j.ijwd.2020.11.001 · Cited by 111
“The Mediterranean diet involves the consumption of foods high in antioxidants, such as fruits, vegetables, whole grains, legumes, olive oil, fish, and poultry (Widmer et al., 2015).”
BackgroundCocoa, Blood Pressure, and Vascular Function
Ludovici, V., Barthelmes, J., Nägele, M. P., Enseleit, F., Ferri, C., Flammer, A. J., Ruschitzka, F. T., & Sudano, I. (2017) · Frontiers in Nutrition · doi:10.3389/fnut.2017.00036 · Cited by 114
Self-citationThe role of dietary fatty acid intake in inflammatory gene expression: a critical review
Rocha, D. M. U. P., Bressan, J., & Hermsdorff, H. H. M. (2017) · Sao Paulo Medical Journal · doi:10.1590/1516-3180.2016.008607072016 · Cited by 108
Donia, T., & Khamis, A. A. (2021) · Environmental Science and Pollution Research · doi:10.1007/s11356-021-14109-9 · Cited by 115
“Vitamin C supplements, exceeding 700 mg/day, were significantly linked to 25% decreases in coronary heart disease risk in a pooled analysis of nine cohorts (Widmer et al. 2015).”
BackgroundDietary AGEs as Exogenous Boosters of Inflammation
Garay‐Sevilla, M. E., Armando Rojas, R., Portero‐Otín, M., & Uribarri, J. (2021) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu13082802 · Cited by 106
“Analyses on the population of the Spanish Prevención con Dieta Mediterranea (PREDIMED) study showed the Mediterranean diet diminished the expression of pro-atherogenic genes [30], cardiovascular risk surrogate markers such as waist-to-hip ratio, lipid fractions, lipoprotein particles, oxidative stress, and markers of…”
BackgroundJohnson, S. L., Kirk, R. D., DaSilva, N. A., Ma, H., Seeram, N. P., & Bertin, M. J. (2019) · Metabolites · doi:10.3390/metabo9040078 · Cited by 101
“The Mediterranean diet is characterized by high intake of polyphenols and unsaturated fats, with most of the beneficial effects from this diet being attributed to the high polyphenol intake [6,7].”
BackgroundNutrition practices and knowledge among NCAA Division III football players
Abbey, E. L., Wright, C. J., & Kirkpatrick, C. M. (2017) · Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition · doi:10.1186/s12970-017-0170-2 · Cited by 118
“Besides being high in potassium, diets rich in fruits and vegetables may be beneficial for cardiovascular health because of their high antioxidant content, which may minimize inflammation and oxidative stress [25, 32].”
BackgroundDietary Patterns and Cardiovascular Disease Risk in People with Type 2 Diabetes
Archundia Herrera, M. C., Subhan, F. B., & Chan, C. B. (2017) · Current Obesity Reports · doi:10.1007/s13679-017-0284-5 · Cited by 98
Gut Microbiota and Atherosclerosis—Focusing on the Plaque Stability
Shen, X., Li, L., Sun, Z., Zang, G., Zhang, L., Shao, C., & Wang, Z. (2021) · Frontiers in Cardiovascular Medicine · doi:10.3389/fcvm.2021.668532 · Cited by 103
“WHO has declared that a healthy diet comprises low saturated fats, low salts, and high fruits and vegetables (142).”
BackgroundAndreu-Reinón, M. E., Chirlaque, M. D., Gavrila, D., Amiano, P., Mar, J., Tainta, M., Ardanáz, E., Larumbe, R., Colorado-Yohar, S. M., Navarro‐Mateu, F., et al. (2021) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu13020700 · Cited by 101
“Furthermore, several components of the MD, such as olive oil, fish, vegetables, or nuts are associated with reduced inflammation and dyslipidemia [46,49], and are rich in antioxidants, such as vitamin C, vitamin E, β-carotene, or flavonoids, and minerals such as selenium [45], that could ameliorate the age-related dec…”
BackgroundA cross-talk between gut microbiome, salt and hypertension
Naqvi, S., Asar, T. O., Kumar, V., Al-Abbasi, F. A., Alhayyani, S., Kamal, M. A., & Anwar, F. (2021) · Biomedicine & Pharmacotherapy · doi:10.1016/j.biopha.2020.111156 · Cited by 95
Bakaloudi, D. R., Chrysoula, L., Kotzakioulafi, E., Theodoridis, X., & Chourdakis, M. (2021) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu13051514 · Cited by 92
“The potential advantages relate to the synergic effect and mechanisms of specific nutrients that have a direct impact on all risk markers of MetS, namely, WC, HDL, TG, FBG, BP, as well as systemic inflammation [28].”
BackgroundNuts and Dried Fruits: An Update of Their Beneficial Effects on Type 2 Diabetes
Hernández‐Alonso, P., Camacho‐Barcia, L., Bulló, M., & Salas‐Salvadó, J. (2017) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu9070673 · Cited by 88
“, with no added sugar) are key food categories in the Mediterranean diet and other regional diets [1].”
BackgroundDas, D., Shruthi, N. R., Banerjee, A., Jothimani, G., Duttaroy, A. K., & Pathak, S. (2023) · Frontiers in Nutrition · doi:10.3389/fnut.2023.1221438 · Cited by 90
“Recent studies have demonstrated that the Mediterranean diet (MedDiet) can reduce mortality rates in individuals of various body sizes, including those who are overweight or obese, physically fit, or at an increased risk for CVD (217).”
BackgroundDiet and lifestyle impact the development and progression of Alzheimer’s dementia
Arora, S., Santiago, J. A., Bernstein, M., & Potashkin, J. A. (2023) · Frontiers in Nutrition · doi:10.3389/fnut.2023.1213223 · Cited by 102
“org include ample plant-based, unprocessed foods, including whole grains, fresh vegetables, beans, legumes, seeds, extra virgin olive oil, nuts, and fruits (41, 43).”
BackgroundRodríguez-López, P., Lozano‐Sánchez, J., Borrás‐Linares, I., Emanuelli, T., Menéndez, J. A., & Segura‐Carretero, A. (2020) · Antioxidants · doi:10.3390/antiox9080685 · Cited by 96
“The predominant fatty acid present in the virgin olive oil is monounsaturated oleic acid (68–82% of the total fatty acids in olive oil), which has been widely studied, and its benefits have been established [7,8,10,11].”
BackgroundBioactive Compounds in Edible Oils and Their Role in Oxidative Stress and Inflammation
Mazzocchi, A., Cosmi, V. D., Risé, P., Milani, G. P., Turolo, S., Syrén, M., Sala, A., & Agostoni, C. V. (2021) · Frontiers in Physiology · doi:10.3389/fphys.2021.659551 · Cited by 93
Zhang, S., Dukuzimana, J., Stubbendorff, A., Ericson, U., Borné, Y., & Sonestedt, E. (2023) · American Journal of Clinical Nutrition · doi:10.1016/j.ajcnut.2023.02.018 · Cited by 95
The Association between Diet and Hepatocellular Carcinoma: A Systematic Review
George, E. S., Sood, S., Broughton, A., Cogan, G., Hickey, M., Chan, W. S., Sudan, S., & Nicoll, A. (2021) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu13010172 · Cited by 92
Liu, Y.-H., Gao, X., Na, M., Kris-Etherton, P. M., Mitchell, D. C., & Jensen, G. L. (2020) · Journal of Alzheimer's Disease · doi:10.3233/jad-200499 · Cited by 86
Asghari, G., Farhadnejad, H., Mirmiran, P., Dizavi, A., Yuzbashian, E., & Azizi, F. (2016) · Hypertension Research · doi:10.1038/hr.2016.98 · Cited by 86
Dietary pattern in relation to the risk of Alzheimer’s disease: a systematic review
Samadi, M., Moradi, S., Moradinazar, M., Mostafai, R., & Pasdar, Y. (2019) · Neurological Sciences · doi:10.1007/s10072-019-03976-3 · Cited by 89
Grant, F., Scalvedi, M. L., Scognamiglio, U., Turrini, A., & Rossi, L. (2021) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu13072279 · Cited by 91
“The Mediterranean Diet (MD) principles were recommended [10] given its effectiveness in protecting health [11–15] and promoting an appropriate performance of the immune system [16,17].”
BackgroundThe impact of diet upon mitochondrial physiology (Review)
Kyriazis, I. D., Vassi, E., Alvanou, M. V., Angelakis, C., Skaperda, Z., Tekos, F., Garikipati, V. N. S., Spandidos, D. A., & Kouretas, D. (2022) · International Journal of Molecular Medicine · doi:10.3892/ijmm.2022.5191 · Cited by 94
Podadera-Herreros, A., Alcala-Diaz, J. F., Gutierrez-Mariscal, F. M., Jiménez-Torres, J., de la Cruz, S., Larriva, A. P. A.-D., Cardelo, M. P., Torres-Peña, J. D., Luque, R. M., Ordovás, J. M., et al. (2022) · Clinical Nutrition · doi:10.1016/j.clnu.2021.12.041 · Cited by 87
Tang, C., Wang, X., Qin, L., & Dong, J.-Y. (2021) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu13082623 · Cited by 86
“The potential mechanism for the inverse association of MD with all-cause mortality among patients with CVD might be attributed to these food groups that have beneficial effects on blood pressure, lipid and glucose metabolism, endothelial function, thrombosis, and inflammation, contributing to improved cardiovascular e…”
BackgroundSchroer, W. C., LeMarr, A. R., Mills, K., Childress, A. L., Morton, D. J., & Reedy, M. E. (2019) · The Bone & Joint Journal · doi:10.1302/0301-620x.101b7.bjj-2018-1510.r1 · Cited by 80
Quispe, R., Michos, E. D., Martin, S. S., Puri, R., Toth, P. P., Suwaidi, J. M. S. A., Banach, M., Virani, S. S., Blumenthal, R. S., Jones, S. R., et al. (2020) · Journal of the American Heart Association · doi:10.1161/jaha.119.013600 · Cited by 78
“31 In individuals with elevated hsCRP, reducing the lifelong burden of in fl ammation (a term we call in fl ammation pack-years ) using lifestyle interventions or anti-in fl ammatory pharmacotherapies, such as high-intensity statin therapy, should be a cornerstone of primordial and primary prevention.”
George, E. S., Kucianski, T., Mayr, H. L., Moschonis, G., Tierney, A. C., & Itsiopoulos, C. (2018) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu10040465 · Cited by 81
“This encompasses overall macro and micronutrient composition, the variety of foods included as well as the combination, preparation and consumption of these foods which contribute to the synergistic effect of the food matrix [9].”
Tettamanzi, F., Bagnardi, V., Louca, P., Nogal, A., Monti, G. S., Mambrini, S. P., Lucchetti, E., Maestrini, S., Mazza, S., Rodriguez‐Mateos, A., et al. (2021) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu13124380 · Cited by 84
“Greater adherence to the M diet has been associated with reduced risk of cardiovascular disease [9,10], which also supports weight loss [11].”
BackgroundKalogerakou, T., & Αντωνιάδου, Μ. (2024) · Antioxidants · doi:10.3390/antiox13121508 · Cited by 105
Carbone, S., Canada, J. M., Buckley, L. F., Trankle, C. R., Billingsley, H., Dixon, D. L., Mauro, A. G., Dessie, S., Kadariya, D., Mezzaroma, E., et al. (2017) · JACC Basic to Translational Science · doi:10.1016/j.jacbts.2017.06.009 · Cited by 77
“A diet rich in UFAs and low in refined carbohydrates and sugars, typically seen in Mediterranean dietary patterns, has been associated with favorable CV outcomes (32,33), lower incidence of HF (34), and reduced overall mortality (21).”
BackgroundDate Palm Fruit (Phoenix dactylifera): Effects on Vascular Health and Future Research Directions
Al-Dashti, Y. A., Holt, R. R., Keen, C. L., & Hackman, R. M. (2021) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms22094665 · Cited by 87
“or through their interactive effects are thought to promote cardiovascular health [58,59].”
BackgroundMilenković, T., Bozhinovska, N., Μacut, D., Bjekić-Macut, J., Rahelić, D., Velija-Ašimi, Z., & Bureković, A. (2021) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu13041307 · Cited by 97
“Although the study was primarily outlined as a primary prevention randomized controlled trial, it proved that the Mediterranean lifestyle is closely associated with reductions in cardiovascular risk and disease; pro-atherogenic genes expression [37]; surrogate markers, such as waist-to-hip ratio; lipoprotein particles…”
BackgroundNutrition-based interventions for mood disorders
Martins, L. B., Tibães, J. R. B., Sanches, M., Jacka, F. N., Berk, M., & Teixeira, A. L. (2021) · Expert Review of Neurotherapeutics · doi:10.1080/14737175.2021.1881482 · Cited by 79
Dietary recommendations in Spain –affordability and environmental sustainability?
González‐García, S., Green, R. F., Scheelbeek, P., Harris, F., & Dangour, A. D. (2020) · Journal of Cleaner Production · doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.120125 · Cited by 69
“These values are in line with those found in the literature for designed diets following the considered sanitary recommendations (Agnoli et al., 2018; Medrano et al., 2012; Widner et al., 2014).”
ResultNutrigenetics—personalized nutrition in obesity and cardiovascular diseases
Barrea, L., Annunziata, G., Bordoni, L., Muscogiuri, G., Colao, A., & Savastano, S. (2020) · International Journal of Obesity Supplements · doi:10.1038/s41367-020-0014-4 · Cited by 80
Carnevale, R., Loffredo, L., Ben, M. D., Angelico, F., Nocella, C., Petruccioli, A., Bartimoccia, S., Monticolo, R., Cava, E., & Violi, F. (2016) · Clinical Nutrition · doi:10.1016/j.clnu.2016.05.016 · Cited by 74
LeBlanc, K., Baer-Sinnott, S., Lancaster, K. J., Campos, H., Lau, K. H. K., Tucker, K. L., Kushi, L. H., & Willett, W. C. (2024) · Advances in Nutrition · doi:10.1016/j.advnut.2024.100221 · Cited by 75
“The Mediterranean diet, with decades of epidemiological and clinical research that support its healthfulness, is a well-studied traditional diet [1 – 3] that has been recognized by the United Nations Educational, Scienti fi c, and Cultural Organization as intangible cultural heritage of humanity…”
Kamiloğlu, S., Grootaert, C., Çapanoğlu, E., Ozkan, C., Smagghe, G. J., Raes, K., & Camp, J. V. (2016) · Molecular Nutrition & Food Research · doi:10.1002/mnfr.201600455 · Cited by 68
“Over the past few decades, several epidemiological and clinical studies indicated that chronic inflammation is a significant risk factor in the development of various human diseases, in particular cardiovascular diseases [1], which is the leading cause of morbidity and mortality in the world regardless of race, ethnic…”
BackgroundEffects of Olive Oil on Blood Pressure: Epidemiological, Clinical, and Mechanistic Evidence
Massaro, M., Scoditti, E., Carluccio, M. A., Calabriso, N., Santarpino, G., Verri, T., & Caterina, R. D. (2020) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu12061548 · Cited by 73
“Among protective factors, a significant role has been postulated for a typical component of the cardiovascular-protective diet par excellence, the Mediterranean diet [100].”
Background
Metadata
- Authors
- Widmer, R. J., Flammer, A. J., Lerman, L. O., & Lerman, A.
- Affiliations
- Mayo Clinic (US)
- Corresponding author
- Lerman, Amir
- Venue
- The American Journal of Medicine
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2015-03
- Volume
- 128
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 229-238
- ISSN
- 0002-9343 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC4339461
- OpenAlex
- W2066595212
- Cited by
- 963
- References
- 122
- Citations by year
- 2026: 48 · 2025: 86 · 2024: 109 · 2023: 140 · 2022: 109 · 2021: 114 · 2020: 151 · 2019: 60 · 2018: 44 · 2017: 41 · 2016: 35 · 2015: 25
- FWCI
- 5.35
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- The American Journal of Medicine (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Zurich Open Repository and Archive (University of Zurich) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- Schweizerischer Nationalfonds zur Förderung der Wissenschaftlichen Forschung (PASMP3_132551)
- National Institutes of Health (92954, 085307)
- Swiss Re Foundation
- Universität Zürich
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Nutritional Studies and Diet
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Cardiology and Cardiovascular Medicine › Cardiovascular Health and Risk Factors
- Health Sciences › Nursing › Nutrition and Dietetics › Fatty Acid Research and Health
- Keywords
- Mediterranean diet, cardiovascular disease prevention, cardioprotection, olive oil, monounsaturated fatty acids, fish consumption, whole grains, Fabaceae, nuts, moderate drinking, cardiovascular risk factors, inflammatory markers, cardiovascular mortality, food components
- MeSH terms
- Cardiovascular Diseases, Humans, Metabolism, Randomized Controlled Trials as Topic, Outcome Assessment, Health Care, Diet, Mediterranean, Observational Studies as Topic
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