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Eicosapentaenoic acid reduces membrane fluidity, inhibits cholesterol domain formation, and normalizes bilayer width in atherosclerotic-like model membranes
Open accessAbstract
Cholesterol crystalline domains characterize atherosclerotic membranes, altering vascular signaling and function. Omega-3 fatty acids reduce membrane lipid peroxidation and subsequent cholesterol domain formation. We evaluated non-peroxidation-mediated effects of eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), other TG-lowering agents, docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), and other long-chain fatty acids on membrane fluidity, bilayer width, and cholesterol domain formation in model membranes. In membranes prepared at 1.5:1 cholesterol-to-phospholipid (C/P) mole ratio (creating pre-existing domains), EPA, glycyrrhizin, arachidonic acid, and alpha linolenic acid promoted the greatest reductions in cholesterol domains (by 65.5%, 54.9%, 46.8%, and 45.2%, respectively) compared to controls; other treatments had modest effects. EPA effects on cholesterol domain formation were dose-dependent. In membranes with 1:1 C/P (predisposing domain formation), DHA, but not EPA, dose-dependently increased membrane fluidity. DHA also induced cholesterol domain formation without affecting temperature-induced changes in-bilayer unit cell periodicity relative to controls (d-space; 57Å-55Å over 15-30°C). Together, these data suggest simultaneous formation of distinct cholesterol-rich ordered domains and cholesterol-poor disordered domains in the presence of DHA. By contrast, EPA had no effect on cholesterol domain formation and produced larger d-space values relative to controls (60Å-57Å; p<0.05) over the same temperature range, suggesting a more uniform maintenance of lipid dynamics despite the presence of cholesterol. These data indicate that EPA and DHA had different effects on membrane bilayer width, membrane fluidity, and cholesterol crystalline domain formation; suggesting omega-3 fatty acids with differing chain length or unsaturation may differentially influence membrane lipid dynamics and structural organization as a result of distinct phospholipid/sterol interactions.
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“a broad literature examining effects of EPA vs EPA/DHA at the molecular and cellular levels,39, 40, 41, 42 their effects at the level of atherosclerotic plaque quantifiable with clinical imaging,8 and their effects at the clinical endpoint level evidenced in the RCT literature reviewed here, all suggest more robust benefit with purified EPA rather than mixed EPA/DHA.”
From Effects of Eicosapentaenoic Acid vs Eicosapentaenoic/Docosahexaenoic Acids on Cardiovascular Mortality (2025) · cites this paper as [42]
In the citing paper
“Multiple epidemiological and genetic analyses have demonstrated an independent association with increased cardiovascular risk (14)”
From Effects of Icosapent Ethyl on Total Ischemic Events (2019) · cites this paper as [18]
In the citing paper
“EPA and DHA interact differently with cellular membranes”
From Cardiovascular Impact of Nutritional Supplementation With Omega-3 Fatty Acids (2021) · cites this paper as [27]
In the citing paper
“prevents lipid oxidation”
From Cardiovascular Impact of Nutritional Supplementation With Omega-3 Fatty Acids (2021) · cites this paper as [27]
In the citing paper
“compared with DHA, EPA has a more stable, extended structure”
From Cardiovascular Impact of Nutritional Supplementation With Omega-3 Fatty Acids (2021) · cites this paper as [27]
In the citing paper
“promotes membrane stability”
From Cardiovascular Impact of Nutritional Supplementation With Omega-3 Fatty Acids (2021) · cites this paper as [27]
In the citing paper
“inhibits inflammation”
From Cardiovascular Impact of Nutritional Supplementation With Omega-3 Fatty Acids (2021) · cites this paper as [27]
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BackgroundResultBehavior of the DPH fluorescence probe in membranes perturbed by drugs
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Self-citationEPA and DHA containing phospholipids have contrasting effects on membrane structure
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“to decrease membrane fluidity, inhibit cholesterol domain formation, and normalize bilayer width in atherosclerotic-like model membranes (116).”
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Peña-de-la-Sancha, P., Muñoz-García, A., Espinola-Zavaleta, N. G., Bautista‐Pérez, R., Mejía, A. M., Luna‐Luna, M., López‐Olmos, V., Rodrı́guez-Pérez, J. M., Fragoso, J. M., Carreón‐Torres, E., et al. (2023) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms24065390 · Cited by 20
“Polyunsaturated fatty acids are more fluid than monounsaturated or saturated fatty acids; consequently, the increase in n-3 content in HDLs may compromise the stability of the particle via the modification of its surface tension, which is fundamental for the metabolism and function of these lipoproteins [28,29].”
BackgroundTrivedi, K., Le, V. T., & Nelson, J. R. (2020) · Postgraduate Medicine · doi:10.1080/00325481.2020.1783937 · Cited by 20
“and lipid dynamics, rates of lipid oxidation, and cholesterol domains [32,40,112,113].”
BackgroundDjuricic, I. D., & Calder, P. C. (2024) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu16070962 · Cited by 21
“EPA may maintain intermolecular phospholipid packing constraints and preserve the even distribution of cholesterol in membranes, while DHA induces membrane phospholipid disorder, which causes cholesterol to self-aggregate [45,46].”
BackgroundControversies in the Use of Omega-3 Fatty Acids to Prevent Atherosclerosis
Quispe, R., Alfaddagh, A., Kazzi, B., Zghyer, F., Marvel, F. A., Blumenthal, R. S., Sharma, G., & Martin, S. S. (2022) · Current Atherosclerosis Reports · doi:10.1007/s11883-022-01031-9 · Cited by 17
Kalo, D., Reches, D., Neta, N., Komsky‐Elbaz, A., Zeron, Y., Moallem, U., & Roth, Z. (2022) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0265650 · Cited by 18
“In-vitro culturing with docosahexaenoic acid was found to increase membrane fluidity in endothelial cells [71] and atherosclerotic-like model membranes [72].”
BackgroundDinu, M., Sofi, F., Lotti, S., Colombini, B., Mattioli, A. V., Catapano, A. L., Casula, M., Baragetti, A., Wong, N. D., Steg, P. G., et al. (2024) · European Journal of Preventive Cardiology · doi:10.1093/eurjpc/zwae184 · Cited by 17
Le, V. T., Knight, S., Watrous, J. D., Najhawan, M., Dao, K., McCubrey, R. O., Bair, T. L., Horne, B. D., May, H. T., Muhlestein, J. B., et al. (2023) · Frontiers in Cardiovascular Medicine · doi:10.3389/fcvm.2023.1229130 · Cited by 18
“Beyond the differences between EPA and DHA in the membrane lipid layer (50), EPA and DHA molecules directly compete for incorporation into the cell membrane by differentially displacing omega-6 PUFAs, affecting downstream metabolites involved in the initiation and resolution of inflammation (46).”
BackgroundNath, L. R., Gowda, S. G. B., Roberts, T. H., Gowda, D., Khoddami, A., & Hui, S. (2024) · Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry · doi:10.1021/acs.jafc.4c05919 · Cited by 17
Sherratt, S. C. R., Libby, P., Dawoud, H., Bhatt, D. L., Maliñski, T., & Mason, R. P. (2023) · Biomedicine & Pharmacotherapy · doi:10.1016/j.biopha.2023.114629 · Cited by 17
Self-citationExploring the role and therapeutic potential of lipid metabolism in acute kidney injury
Zhang, X., Wu, W., Li, Y., & Peng, Z. (2024) · Renal Failure · doi:10.1080/0886022x.2024.2403652 · Cited by 17
“…acid (ePA), a 20-carbon omega-3 fatty acid, has the potential to influence lipid metabolism, cell signal transduction, and gene expression [60]. ePA has been found to mitigate iR-induced renal fatty acid toxicity by relieving lysosomal dysfunction and promoting the transfer of fatty acids…”
BackgroundOmega-3 Eicosapentaenoic Acid Reduces Prostate Tumor Vascularity
Gevariya, N., Lachance, G., Robitaille, K., Beauparlant, C. J., Beaudoin, L., Fournier, É., Fradet, Y., Droit, A., Julien, P., Marette, A., et al. (2020) · Molecular Cancer Research · doi:10.1158/1541-7786.mcr-20-0316 · Cited by 17
“Both EPA and DHA can be incorporated into cell membranes, modulating fluidity, hampering cell signaling pathways and thus inhibiting prostate cancer cell proliferation (8, 17, 18).”
BackgroundPedroni, V. I., Sierra, M. B., Alarcón, L. M., Verde, A. R., Appignanesi, G. A., & Morini, M. A. (2021) · Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) - Biomembranes · doi:10.1016/j.bbamem.2021.183584 · Cited by 17
Eicosapentaenoic acid vs. docosahexaenoic acid for the prevention of cardiovascular disease
Sweeney, T. E., Gaine, S. P., & Michos, E. D. (2023) · Current Opinion in Endocrinology, Diabetes & Obesity · doi:10.1097/med.0000000000000796 · Cited by 18
“Although it has been shown to lower circulating TG levels, studies in vitro suggest DHA promotes cholesterol crystal formation and destabilizes lipid membranes – both important steps in atherogenesis [12].”
BackgroundBrosolo, G., Porto, A. D., Marcante, S., Capilupi, F., Bertin, N., Vivarelli, C., Bulfone, L., Vacca, A., Catena, C., & Sechi, L. A. (2024) · European Journal of Pharmacology · doi:10.1016/j.ejphar.2024.177107 · Cited by 16
Is hypertriglyceridemia atherogenic?
Huet, F., Roubille, C., & Roubille, F. (2019) · Current Opinion in Lipidology · doi:10.1097/mol.0000000000000622 · Cited by 15
“At the early stage of the plaque formation, OM3FA reduces endothelial dysfunction, increases nitric oxide availability, reduces the oxidized form of LDLc, and interferes with the migration of cells, such as monocytes, macrophages, and the formation of foam cells [34].”
BackgroundSpotlight on Icosapent Ethyl for Cardiovascular Risk Reduction: Evidence to Date
Jia, X., Koh, S., Al Rifai, M., Blumenthal, R. S., & Virani, S. S. (2020) · Vascular Health and Risk Management · doi:10.2147/vhrm.s210149 · Cited by 14
“which in turn imparts a protective effect against endothelial dysfunction.(31) Moreover, higher concentration of EPA”
BackgroundBridging ADHD and Metabolic Disorders: Insights into Shared Mechanisms and Clinical Implications
Marcelli, I., Capece, U., & Caturano, A. (2025) · Diabetology · doi:10.3390/diabetology6050040 · Cited by 15
“An omega-3 enriched diet should be encouraged, as these nutrients not only confer cardiovascular benefits [153] but may also reduce impulsive behavior in ADHD patients [154] (Table 1).”
Strategies for chronic coronary disease: A brief guide for clinicians
Krittanawong, C., Khawaja, M., Virk, H. U. H., Escobar, J., Khalid, U., Birnbaum, Y., Lavie, C. J., Sharma, S. K., Jneid, H. M., Rao, S. V., et al. (2024) · npj Cardiovascular Health · doi:10.1038/s44325-024-00006-w · Cited by 17
Mason, R. P., Sherratt, S. C. R., & Eckel, R. H. (2022) · Metabolism · doi:10.1016/j.metabol.2022.155161 · Cited by 14
Self-citationPotential Mechanisms by Which Hydroxyeicosapentaenoic Acids Regulate Glucose Homeostasis in Obesity
Shaikh, S. R., Virk, R., & Dyke, T. E. V. (2022) · Advances in Nutrition · doi:10.1093/advances/nmac073 · Cited by 14
Genetic- and diet-induced ω-3 fatty acid enrichment enhances TRPV4-mediated vasodilation in mice
Caires, R., Garrud, T. A. C., Romero, L. O., Fernández‐Peña, C., Vásquez, V., Jaggar, J. H., & Cordero-Morales, J. F. (2022) · Cell Reports · doi:10.1016/j.celrep.2022.111306 · Cited by 13
“Lipid membranes highly enriched in ω -3 PUFAs have distinct mechanical properties, such as increased disorder and low bending stiffness (Caires et al., 2017; Mason et al., 2016; Romero et al., 2019).”
Gonzalez, D. E., Dickerson, B. L., Roberts, B. M., Kurtz, J. A., Waldman, H. S., Gonzalez, A. M., McAllister, M. J., Heileson, J. L., Bloomer, R. J., Arent, S. M., et al. (2026) · Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition · doi:10.1080/15502783.2026.2629828 · Cited by 17
Mohajeri, M., & Cicero, A. F. G. (2023) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu15030738 · Cited by 13
“Several studies reported that omega-3 fatty acids could reduce cardiovascular disease risk via several mechanisms, including improving vascular function [52].”
BackgroundNatural Products as a Potential Source of Promising Therapeutics for COVID‐19 and Viral Diseases
Bafandeh, S., Khodadadi, E., Ganbarov, K., Asgharzadeh, M., Köse, Ş., & Kafil, H. S. (2023) · Evidence-based Complementary and Alternative Medicine · doi:10.1155/2023/5525165 · Cited by 17
Capece, U., Gugliandolo, S., Morciano, C., Avolio, A., Splendore, A., Giuseppe, G. D., Ciccarelli, G., Soldovieri, L., Brunetti, M., Mezza, T., et al. (2024) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu16244318 · Cited by 16
“Moreover, their interaction with membrane cholesterol presents disparities in an experimental model: under low-cholesterol conditions, both EPA and DHA reduce the energy associated with membrane stretching; when cholesterol increases, EPA increases this parameter, while DHA does not [15].”
Vieira, H. C., Ramirez, M. M. B., Bordalo, M. D., Rodrigues, A. C. M., Soares, A. M. V. M., de Abreu, S. N., Morgado, F. M. R., & Osten, J. R. (2021) · Exposure and Health · doi:10.1007/s12403-021-00388-7 · Cited by 13
Kapoor, K., Alfaddagh, A., Stone, N. J., & Blumenthal, R. S. (2021) · Journal of clinical lipidology · doi:10.1016/j.jacl.2021.06.004 · Cited by 14
Mechanism of action of glycyrrhizin against Plasmodium falciparum
Soeiro, M. D. N. C., Vergoten, G., & Bailly, C. (2021) · Memórias do Instituto Oswaldo Cruz · doi:10.1590/0074-02760210084 · Cited by 13
Meta-analysis Comparing Combined Use of Eicosapentaenoic Acid and Statin to Statin Alone
Doshi, R. P., Kumar, A., Thakkar, S. J., Shariff, M., Adalja, D., Doshi, A., Taha, M., Gupta, R., Desai, R., Shah, J., et al. (2019) · The American Journal of Cardiology · doi:10.1016/j.amjcard.2019.10.009 · Cited by 12
Sherratt, S. C. R., Villeneuve, P., Durand, E., & Mason, R. P. (2018) · Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) - Biomembranes · doi:10.1016/j.bbamem.2018.12.016 · Cited by 11
Self-citationAssociation of omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acid intake with leukocyte telomere length in US males
Seo, B., Yang, K., He, K., Qureshi, A. A., Chan, A. T., Vivo, I. D., Cho, E., Giovannucci, E. L., & Nan, H. (2022) · American Journal of Clinical Nutrition · doi:10.1093/ajcn/nqac263 · Cited by 11
Metadata
- Authors
- Mason, R. P., Jacob, R. F., Shrivastava, S., Sherratt, S. C. R., & Chattopadhyay, A.
- Affiliations
- Brigham and Women's Hospital (US)
- Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology (IN)
- Corresponding author
- Mason, R. Preston
- Venue
- Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) - Biomembranes
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2016-12
- Volume
- 1858
- Issue
- 12
- Pages
- 3131-3140
- ISSN
- 0005-2736 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2527894800
- Cited by
- 179
- References
- 76
- Citations by year
- 2026: 12 · 2025: 10 · 2024: 25 · 2023: 22 · 2022: 26 · 2021: 27 · 2020: 23 · 2019: 17 · 2018: 8 · 2017: 8
- FWCI
- 5.72
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) - Biomembranes (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- Amarin Pharma
- Bangladesh Council of Scientific and Industrial Research
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Molecular Biology › Lipid Membrane Structure and Behavior
- Health Sciences › Nursing › Nutrition and Dietetics › Fatty Acid Research and Health
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Biochemistry › Cholesterol and Lipid Metabolism
- Keywords
- eicosapentaenoic acid, docosahexaenoic acid, omega-3 fatty acids, membrane fluidity, atherosclerosis, model membranes, cholesterol/phospholipid ratio, lipid peroxidation, long-chain fatty acids, glycyrrhizin, arachidonic acid, alpha-linolenic acid, lipid dynamics
- MeSH terms
- Cholesterol, Docosahexaenoic Acids, Dose-Response Relationship, Drug, Humans, Lipid Bilayers, Membrane Fluidity, Eicosapentaenoic Acid, Atherosclerosis
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