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Affective temperament, attachment style, and the psychological impact of the COVID-19 outbreak: an early report on the Italian general population
Open accessAbstract
The outbreak of COVID-19 is severely affecting mental health worldwide, although individual response may vary. This study aims to investigate the psychological distress perceived by the Italian general population during the early phase of the COVID-19 pandemic, and to analyze affective temperament and adult attachment styles as potential mediators. Through an online survey, we collected sociodemographic and lockdown-related information and evaluated distress, temperament, and attachment using the Kessler 10 Psychological Distress Scale (K10), the Temperament Evaluation of Memphis, Pisa, Paris and San Diego-Autoquestionnaire short version (TEMPS-A) and the Attachment Style Questionnaire (ASQ). In our sample (n = 500), 62% of the individuals reported no likelihood of psychological distress, whereas 19.4% and 18.6% displayed mild and moderate-to-severe likelihood. Cyclothymic (OR: 1.24; p < 0.001), depressive (OR: 1.52; p < 0.001) and anxious (OR: 1.58; p = 0.002) temperaments, and the ASQ "Need for approval" (OR: 1.08; p = 0.01) were risk factors for moderate-to-severe psychological distress compared to no distress, while the ASQ "Confidence" (OR: 0.89; p = 0.002) and "Discomfort with closeness" were protective (OR: 0.92; p = 0.001). Cyclothymic (OR: 1.17; p = 0.008) and depressive (OR: 1.32; p = 0.003) temperaments resulted as risk factors in subjects with moderate-to-severe psychological distress compared to mild distress, while the ASQ "Confidence" (OR: 0.92; p = 0.039) and "Discomfort with closeness" (OR: 0.94; p = 0.023) were protective. Our data indicated that a relevant rate of individuals may have experienced psychological distress following the COVID-19 outbreak. Specific affective temperament and attachment features predict the extent of mental health burden. To the best of our knowledge, these are the first data available on the psychological impact of the early phase of the COVID-19 pandemic on a sizeable sample of the Italian population. Moreover, our study is the first to investigate temperament and attachment characteristics in the psychological response to the ongoing pandemic. Our results provide further insight into developing targeted intervention strategies.
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“recent international studies have reported increased symptoms of anxiety, depression, sleep disorders, and psychological distress during lockdown (4–10)”
From The Evolution of Psychological and Behavioral Consequences of Self-Isolation During Lockdown: A Longitudinal Study Across United Kingdom and Italy (2022) · cites this paper as [8]
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“The Covid-19 pandemic and subsequent public health measures were shown to impact negatively on people’s mental health.”
From Positive Impact of Mindfulness Meditation on Mental Health of Female Teachers during the COVID-19 Outbreak in Italy (2020) · cites this paper as [4]
In the citing paper
“Early reports emerging in the literature have shown that between 40% and 50% of adults have experienced psychological distress following the Covid-19 outbreak [4,5]”
From Positive Impact of Mindfulness Meditation on Mental Health of Female Teachers during the COVID-19 Outbreak in Italy (2020) · cites this paper as [4]
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The Psychological Impact of Quarantine and How to Reduce It: Rapid Review of the Evidence
Brooks, S. K., Webster, R. K., Smith, L. E., Woodland, L., Wessely, S., Greenberg, N., & Rubin, G. J. (2020) · doi:10.2139/ssrn.3532534 · Cited by 16,394
The psychological impact of quarantine and how to reduce it: Rapid review of the evidence
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Interpreting scores on the Kessler Psychological Distress Scale (K10)
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The consequences of the COVID-19 pandemic on mental health and implications for clinical practice
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Impact of COVID-19 pandemic on mental health in the general population: a systematic review
Xiong, J., Lipsitz, O., Nasri, F., Lui, L. M. W., Gill, H., Phan, L., Chen-Li, D., Iacobucci, M., Ho, R., Majeed, A., et al. (2020) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2020.08.001 · Cited by 5,204
COVID-19 pandemic and mental health consequences: Systematic review of the current evidence
Vindegaard, N., & Benros, M. E. (2020) · Brain, Behavior, and Immunity · doi:10.1016/j.bbi.2020.05.048 · Cited by 3,221
Luo, M., Guo, L., Yu, M., Jiang, W., & Wang, H. (2020) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2020.113190 · Cited by 1,615
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Cénat, J. M., Blais-Rochette, C., Kokou-Kpolou, C. K., Noorishad, P.-G., Mukunzi, J. N., McIntee, S.-E., Dalexis, R. D., Goulet, M.-A., & Labelle, P. R. (2021) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2020.113599 · Cited by 952
Metadata
- Authors
- Moccia, L., Janiri, D., Pepe, M., Dattoli, L., Molinaro, M., De Martin, V., Chieffo, D., Janiri, L., Fiorillo, A., Sani, G., & Di Nicola, M.
- Affiliations
- Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore (IT)
- Agostino Gemelli University Polyclinic (IT)
- University of Campania "Luigi Vanvitelli" (IT)
- ORCID
- Venue
- Brain, Behavior, and Immunity
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2020-07
- Volume
- 87
- Pages
- 75-79
- ISSN
- 0889-1591 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC7169930
- OpenAlex
- W3017228769
- Cited by
- 605
- References
- 25
- Citations by year
- 2026: 9 · 2025: 18 · 2024: 37 · 2023: 68 · 2022: 136 · 2021: 208 · 2020: 129
- FWCI
- 54.24
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Brain Behavior and Immunity (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Archivio Istituzionale della Ricerca - Università degli Studi della Campania "Luigi Vanvitelli" (submittedVersion)
- IRIS Research product catalog (Sapienza University of Rome) (submittedVersion)
- PubliCatt (Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › COVID-19 and Mental Health
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Maternal Mental Health During Pregnancy and Postpartum
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes
- Keywords
- COVID-19 pandemic, psychological distress, affective temperament, adult attachment styles, cyclothymic temperament, depressive temperament, anxious temperament, need for approval, confidence, lockdown, risk and protective factors, mental health burden
- MeSH terms
- Betacoronavirus, Psychological Distress, COVID-19, SARS-CoV-2, Adolescent, Adult, Affect, Anxiety, Cyclothymic Disorder, Depression, Disease Outbreaks, Female, Humans, Italy, Male, Middle Aged, Object Attachment, Pneumonia, Viral, Severity of Illness Index, Stress, Psychological, Temperament, Coronavirus Infections, Young Adult, Pandemics
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