Prevalence of symptoms of depression, anxiety, insomnia, posttraumatic stress disorder, and psychological distress among populations affected by the COVID-19 pandemic: a systematic review and meta-analysis
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Objective We conducted a systematic review and meta-analysis to estimate the pooled prevalence of depression, anxiety, insomnia, PTSD, and Psychological distress (PD) related to COVID-19 among affected populations.Methods We searched articles in Medline, Embase, APA PsycInfo, CINAHL, Scopus, and Web of Science. Random-effects meta-analyses on the proportions of individuals with symptoms of depression, anxiety, insomnia, PTSD, and PD were generated and between-group differences for gender, healthcare workers (HCWs), and regions where studies were conducted.Results A total of 2189 articles were screened, 136 full-text articles were assessed for eligibility. Fifty-five peer-reviewed studies met inclusion criteria for the meta-analysis (N=189,159). The prevalence of depression (k=46) was 15.97% (95%CI, 13.24-19.13). The prevalence of anxiety (k=54) was 15.15% (95%CI, 12.29-18.54). The prevalence of insomnia (k=14) was 23.87% (95%CI, 15.74-34.48). The prevalence of PTSD (k=13) was 21.94% (95%CI, 9.37-43.31). Finally, the prevalence of psychological distress (k=19) was 13.29% (95%CI, 8.80-19.57). Between-group differences were only found in HCWs (z=2.69, p < 0.05) who had a higher prevalence of insomnia than others.Conclusions Findings suggest that the short-term mental health consequences of COVID-19 are equally high across affected countries, and across gender. However, reports of insomnia are significantly higher among HCWs than the general population.
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Insomnia complaints during COVID-19 are two to three times higher than in prior years.
“Insomnia complaints are two to three times higher during COVID-19 compared to prior years [4].”
From Overview of sleep management during COVID-19. (2022) · cites this paper as [4]
The Discussion (page not provided) reports significantly higher insomnia prevalence in populations affected by COVID-19 than in the general population under normal circumstances. It does not quantify the increase as two to three times higher. (LLM, conf=0.86)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredDuring the COVID-19 pandemic, reported global prevalence of insomnia symptoms is 20-45%.
“Prevalence rates of 20–45% are reported globally for insomnia symptoms during the pandemic.”
From Overview of sleep management during COVID-19. (2022) · cites this paper as [4]
The Results > Insomnia section reports a pooled prevalence of 23.87% during the pandemic, supporting a prevalence rate within the claimed range. It does not report a global range of 20–45%; its estimates are 16.45% for citizens and 36.52% for healthcare workers (page not provided in our copy). (LLM, conf=0.86)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
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“, severe acute respiratory syndrome [SARS] and Middle East respiratory syndrome) were associated with significant increases in risk of mental illness in adolescents and poor mental health up to nine years later (Brooks et al., 2020; Cénat et al., 2020; Loades et al., 2020; Rogers et al., 2020).”
BackgroundMental disorders following COVID-19 and other epidemics: a systematic review and meta-analysis
Leung, C. M. C., Ho, M. K., Bharwani, A. A., Cogo‐Moreira, H., Wang, Y., Chow, M. S. C., Fan, X., Galea, S., Leung, G. M., & Ni, M. Y. (2022) · Translational Psychiatry · doi:10.1038/s41398-022-01946-6 · Cited by 176 · see citing works
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“with some reviews finding similar rates between HCWs and the general public (Cénat et al., 2021; Phiri et al., 2021; Raoofi et al., 2021), making it unclear to what extent working in hospitals, as opposed to other pandemic factors, have affected hospital HCWs’ mental health.”
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“This tool considers bias due to (1) randomization, (2) deviations from intended interventions, (3) missing outcome data, (4) measurement of the outcome and (5) selection of the reported result.”
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A hidden pandemic? An umbrella review of global evidence on mental health in the time of COVID-19
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Mental health responses to COVID-19 around the world
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Mental Health Among Medical Students During COVID-19: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis
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A Systematic Review on COVID-19 Vaccine Strategies, Their Effectiveness, and Issues
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Gender Inequality and Mental Health During the COVID-19 Pandemic
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The Impact of COVID-19 and the Pandemic on Tinnitus: A Systematic Review
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COVID-19 depression and its risk factors in Asia Pacific – A systematic review and meta-analysis
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Predictors of PTSD and Psychological Distress Symptoms of Ukraine Civilians During war
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GABA and its receptors' mechanisms in the treatment of insomnia
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Overview of sleep management during COVID-19.
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“A systematic review showed national rates of insomnia symptoms from 20% to 45% during the COVID-19 pandemic [4].”
BackgroundResultQiu, D., Li, Y., Li, L., He, J., Ouyang, F., & Xiao, S. (2021) · European Psychiatry · doi:10.1192/j.eurpsy.2021.24 · Cited by 50 · see citing works
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Sleep Dysfunction in COVID-19 Patients: Prevalence, Risk Factors, Mechanisms, and Management
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Prevalence of Anxiety in Dental Students during the COVID-19 Outbreak: A Meta-Analysis
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Childhood maltreatment and disordered eating: The mediating role of emotion regulation
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Meta-Analysis of Prevalence of Depression in Dental Students during COVID-19 Pandemic
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Garout, M. A., Saleh, S. A. K., Adly, H. M., Abdulkhaliq, A. A., Khafagy, A. A., Abdeltawab, M. R., Rabaan, A. A., Rodriguez-Morales, A. J., Al‐Tawfiq, J. A., & Alandiyjany, M. N. (2022) · Infection · doi:10.1007/s15010-022-01788-w · Cited by 42 · see citing works
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Impairment of GABA inhibition in insomnia disorders: Evidence from the peripheral blood system
Xiang, T., Liao, J., Cai, Y., Fan, M., Li, C., Zhang, X., Li, H., Chen, Y., & Pan, J. (2023) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1134434 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
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Sleep in Older Adults and Its Possible Relations With COVID-19
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El impacto de la pandemia de COVID-19 sobre la salud. Informe SESPAS 2022
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The mental health of healthcare workers during the COVID-19 pandemic: a narrative review
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Emotional State of Mexican University Students in the COVID-19 Pandemic
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- Authors
- Cénat, J. M., Blais-Rochette, C., Kokou-Kpolou, C. K., Noorishad, P.-G., Mukunzi, J. N., McIntee, S.-E., Dalexis, R. D., Goulet, M.-A., & Labelle, P. R.
- Affiliations
- University of Ottawa (CA)
- Corresponding author
- Cénat, Jude Mary
- ORCID
- Venue
- Psychiatry Research
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2021-01
- Volume
- 295
- Pages
- 113599
- ISSN
- 0165-1781 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC7689353
- OpenAlex
- W3108549363
- Cited by
- 952
- References
- 91
- Citations by year
- 2026: 27 · 2025: 73 · 2024: 141 · 2023: 243 · 2022: 288 · 2021: 174 · 2020: 3 · 2018: 1 · 2016: 1
- FWCI
- 14.02
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Psychiatry Research (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › COVID-19 and Mental Health
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Maternal Mental Health During Pregnancy and Postpartum
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Mental Health Treatment and Access
- Keywords
- COVID-19 pandemic, depression, anxiety, insomnia, post-traumatic stress disorder, psychological distress, mental health prevalence, healthcare workers, gender differences, mental health during pandemic
- MeSH terms
- Psychological Distress, COVID-19, Anxiety, Depression, Health Personnel, Humans, Sleep Initiation and Maintenance Disorders, Stress Disorders, Post-Traumatic, Prevalence
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