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Coping with Emotions Past: The Neural Bases of Regulating Affect Associated with Negative Autobiographical Memories
Open accessAbstract
Background Although the ability to adaptively reflect on negative autobiographical experiences without ruminating is critical to mental health, to our knowledge no research has directly examined the neural systems underlying this process.Methods Sixteen participants were scanned using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) as they focused on negative autobiographical memories using cognitive strategies designed to facilitate (feel strategy) versus undermine (analyze and accept strategies) rumination.Results Two key findings were obtained. First, consistent with prior emotion regulation research using image-based stimuli, left prefrontal activity was observed during the implementation of all three strategies. Second, activity in a network of regions involved in self-referential processing and emotion, including subgenual anterior cingulate cortex and medial prefrontal cortex, was highest in response to the feel strategy and lowest for the accept strategy. This pattern of activation mirrored participants' self-reports of negative affect when engaging in each strategy.Conclusions These findings shed light on the brain regions that distinguish adaptive versus maladaptive forms of reflecting on negative autobiographical memories and offer a novel, ecologically valid route to exploring the neural bases of emotion regulation using fMRI.
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“Also, increased activity in areas associated with perspective taking predicted lower negative affect when decentering relative to the comparison condition – this included the superior parietal lobule, caudate and medial frontal gyrus.”
From Decentering as a core component in the psychological treatment and prevention of youth anxiety and depression: a narrative review and insight report (2021) · cites this paper as [45]
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“Findings suggest lower activity in areas associated with (intrapersonal) cognitive conflict and affective processing when decentering from negative memories relative to a comparison condition in which no attempt was made to alter ones experiences – brain regions included the medial and ventrolateral prefrontal cortex as well as the subgenual anterior cingulate45.”
From Decentering as a core component in the psychological treatment and prevention of youth anxiety and depression: a narrative review and insight report (2021) · cites this paper as [45]
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“there is some suggestion that acceptance may facilitate self-distancing and reappraisal of negative autobiographical memories, corresponding with comparative decreases in subgenual ACC and medial PFC activity (Kross, Davidson, Weber, & Ochsner, 2009).”
From Mechanisms of mindfulness training: Monitor and Acceptance Theory (MAT (2017) · cites this paper as Kross, Davidson, Weber, & Ochsner, 2009
In the citing paper
“activity within the subgenual cortex positively correlates with negative affect in healthy subjects (56–58)”
From Functional anatomy of ventromedial prefrontal cortex: implications for mood and anxiety disorders (2012) · cites this paper as [56]
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“Participants provided these cue phrases before the day of fMRI scanning using a procedure developed in prior research64”
From Separate neural representations for physical pain and social rejection (2014) · cites this paper as [64]
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ResultReframing the Past: Role of Memory Processes in Emotion Regulation
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“Because the VMPFC/ACC is often associated with the regulation of both negative (Delgado et al., 2008; Kross et al., 2009) and positive (Beauregard et al., 2001; Hamilton et al., 2011) emotions, the current results suggest that adults’ positivity effect may arise from age-related changes in…”
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“Interestingly, sACC activation was especially pronounced when healthy participants ruminated about a memory (Kross et al., 2009) or down-regulated negative affective responses in fear extinction paradigms (Diekhof et al., 2011).”
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ResultDecreased medial prefrontal cortex activation during self-referential processing in bipolar mania
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“Activation is evident in cognitive control-related regions in lateral PFC (Holland & Kensinger, 2013; Kross et al., 2009), as well as medial PFC and dACC (Holland & Kensinger, 2013), and in emotion appraisal-related regions like the amygdala and insula (Holland & Kensinger, 2013).”
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Research Methods in Social and Affective Neuroscience
Berkman, E. T., Cunningham, W. A., & Lieberman, M. D. (2014) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511996481.011 · Cited by 17
Leitner, J. B., Ayduk, Ö. N., Mendoza‐Denton, R., Magerman, A. B., Amey, R. C., Kross, E. F., & Forbes, C. E. (2016) · Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience · doi:10.1093/scan/nsw168 · Cited by 17
“…processes to the MPFC are also consistent with fMRI research showing that the MPFC supports self-referential processes (Northoff et al., 2006), and that MPFC activity decreases when people construe past negative emotions as psychologically distant from the self (Kross et al., 2009).”
InfluentialSelf-citationDolcos, F., Katsumi, Y., Denkova, E., Weymar, M., & Dolcos, S. M. (2017) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-4-431-56591-8_5 · Cited by 15
Neural signatures of bullying experience and social rejection in teenagers
Kiefer, M., Sim, E.-J., Heil, S., Brown, R. C., Herrnberger, B., Spitzer, M., & Grön, G. (2021) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0255681 · Cited by 18
“self-referential internal commenting in service of coping with usually negatively connoted issues [69], emotion regulation may be the driving factor for its activation during the social exclusion condition of the Cyberball game [see also 70].”
BackgroundReappraising the voices of wrath
Korb, S., Frühholz, S., & Grandjean, D. (2015) · Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience · doi:10.1093/scan/nsv051 · Cited by 18
Phan, K. L., & Sripada, C. (2013) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511843716.020 · Cited by 16
Niehuis, S., Reifman, A. S., Al‐Khalil, K., Oldham, C. R., Fang, D., O’Boyle, M. W., & Davis, T. H. (2019) · Personal Relationships · doi:10.1111/pere.12272 · Cited by 16
Int-Veen, I., Fallgatter, A. J., Ehlis, A., & Rosenbaum, D. (2023) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-023-41403-y · Cited by 16
“Moreover, other prefrontal areas like the Medial Prefrontal Cortex, left Medial Orbito-Frontal Cortex but also several further regions like Precuneus and the Anterior Cingulate Cortex 25–31 might be related to state rumination, but further research is needed to reach conclusive results.”
Neural networks in bottom up ‘experiential emotion regulation’
Vandekerckhove, M. M. P. (2018) · Behavioural Brain Research · doi:10.1016/j.bbr.2018.01.001 · Cited by 18
Assault-related self-blame and its association with PTSD in sexually assaulted women: an MRI inquiry
Berman, Z., Assaf, Y., Tarrasch, R., & Joel, D. (2018) · Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience · doi:10.1093/scan/nsy044 · Cited by 21
“Previous neuroimaging studies provide support for an involvement of the lingual gyrus in retrieval and processing of negatively valenced memories (Taylor et al., 1998; Kompus et al., 2009; Kross et al., 2009; Burianova et al., 2010), and, among individuals with PTSD, in processing and imagery of the trauma memory (Rau…”
ResultHolland, A. C., & Kensinger, E. A. (2013) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511843716.025 · Cited by 16
Cortese, B. M., McConnell, P. A., Froeliger, B., Leslie, K., & Uhde, T. W. (2015) · Journal of Psychiatric Research · doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2015.08.015 · Cited by 15
“…region thought to have numerous functional roles (Price, 2007, Rolls, 2004b) including, but not limited to, emotion regulation (Golkar et al., 2012, Kross et al., 2009), decision making (Fellows, 2007, Gourley et al., 2013), sensory integration (Rolls, 2004a), as well as a critical role in…”
BackgroundShu, Y., & Luo, Z. (2021) · Aggressive Behavior · doi:10.1002/ab.21982 · Cited by 15
Behavioral and neural mechanisms underlying cognitive vulnerability models of depression.
Auerbach, R. P., Webb, C. A., Gardiner, C. K., & Pechtel, P. (2013) · Journal of Psychotherapy Integration · doi:10.1037/a0031417 · Cited by 14
“Although comparatively less research has been conducted in youth, cognitive vulnerability research in adults has implicated key deficits in the PFC (e.g., Kross et al., 2009) and amygdala (e.g., Zhong et al., 2011).”
BackgroundEngagement and Disengagement: From the Basic Science of Emotion Regulation to an Anxiety Spectrum
MacNamara, A. (2025) · Psychophysiology · doi:10.1111/psyp.70006 · Cited by 17
“Some evidence suggests that acceptance may reduce self-reported negative emotion (Goldin, Moodie, and Gross 2019; Kross et al. 2009) and neurobiological correlates of negative emotion processing such as amygdala (Goldin, Moodie, and Gross 2019) and subgenual anterior cingulate (Kross et al. 2009)…”
Schneck, N., Herzog, S., Lu, J., Yttredahl, A. A., Ogden, R. T., Galfalvy, H., Burke, A. K., Stanley, B., Mann, J. J., & Ochsner, K. N. (2022) · Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2022.09.002 · Cited by 13
Self-citationYoon, L., Keenan, K. E., Hipwell, A. E., Forbes, E. E., & Guyer, A. E. (2023) · Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1016/j.dcn.2023.101320 · Cited by 13
“Although the majority of studies included in this meta-analysis used rumination induction tasks (Denson et al., 2009; Kross et al., 2009; Cooney et al., 2010; Fabiansson et al., 2012; Kowalski et al., 2019) or self-referential tasks (Marques et al., 2018; Nejad et al., 2019) that elicited neural…”
BackgroundAutobiographical Memory and Mindfulness: a Critical Review with a Systematic Search
Dominguez, E., Casagrande, M., & Raffone, A. (2022) · Mindfulness · doi:10.1007/s12671-022-01902-x · Cited by 15
“Acceptance (“mindfully recognize that the feelings experienced during AM recollection are uncontrolled passing mental events psychologically distant from the self”) was found to be associated with decreased activity in a network of regions involved in selfreferential processing, AM recall, and emotion—including the su…”
BackgroundInfluentialAn Overview of Mood-induction Methods
Pu, Z., Liu, C., & Yu, G. (2013) · Advances in Psychological Science · doi:10.3724/sp.j.1042.2012.00045 · Cited by 13
Hehr, A., Iadipaolo, A. S., Morales, A., Cohen, C., Taub, J. W., Harper, F. W. K., Goldberg, E., Bluth, M. H., Rabinak, C. A., & Marusak, H. A. (2022) · Pediatric Blood & Cancer · doi:10.1002/pbc.29917 · Cited by 14
Izuno, S., Yoshihara, K., & Sudo, N. (2021) · Annals of Nutrition and Metabolism · doi:10.1159/000517420 · Cited by 12
Assessing embodied interpersonal emotion regulation in somatic symptom disorders: a case study
Güney, Z. E. O., Sattel, H. C., Cardone, D., & Merla, A. (2015) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00068 · Cited by 14
Distinct neural circuits subserve interpersonal and non-interpersonal emotions
Landa, A., Wang, Z., Russell, J. A., Posner, J. E., Duan, Y., Kangarlu, A., Huo, Y., Fallon, B. A., & Peterson, B. S. (2013) · Social Neuroscience · doi:10.1080/17470919.2013.833984 · Cited by 12
Zhang, Q., Wu, J., Pei, C., Ma, M., Dong, Y., Gao, M. J., & Zhang, H. (2022) · Biological Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.biopsycho.2022.108426 · Cited by 11
Chiasson, C., Moorman, J., Romano, E., & Smith, A. (2022) · American Journal of Men s Health · doi:10.1177/15579883221096566 · Cited by 12
“, 2007), AM is important for sense of self and negative emotion coping (D’Argembeau, 2012; Kross et al., 2009; Prebble et al., 2013) and revisiting maladaptive memories, while incorporating/reinforcing new emotional experiences may be of therapeutic benefit (Lane et al.”
BackgroundInfluentialWang, Y., Vantieghem, I., Dong, D., Nemegeer, J., Mey, J. D., Schuerbeek, P. V., Marinazzo, D., & Vandekerckhove, M. M. P. (2022) · Brain Sciences · doi:10.3390/brainsci12091215 · Cited by 11
“In an fMRI study conducted by Kross, Davidson, Weber, and Ochsner (2009) [40], participants were instructed to use three different methods (‘feel’, ‘accept’, and ‘analyze’ strategies) to regulate emotions induced by recalling their own negative memories.”
MethodThe Ups and Downs of Emotion Regulation
Carter, C. S. (2009) · Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2008.12.023 · Cited by 11
“(1) in this issue of Biological Psychiatry, the authors report results from a functional magnetic resonance imaging study that focuses on the use of cognitive strategies for affect regulation.”
Flexibility between immersion and distancing: A dynamic pattern with effect on depressive symptoms
Barbosa, E., Silva, M. S., Montanha, C. C., Pinto‐Gouveia, J., & Salgado, J. (2020) · Psychotherapy Research · doi:10.1080/10503307.2020.1807638 · Cited by 11
“…have shown that depressive people tend to reflect according to an immersed perspective (e.g., Barbosa et al., 2017, 2018; Couto et al., 2016; Kross & Ayduk, 2009; Kross et al., 2009, 2012), and while this pattern remains stable, it may hinder any symptomatic improvement (Barbosa et al., 2019).”
BackgroundEnhancing reappraisal of negative emotional memories with transcranial direct current stimulation
Doerig, N., Seinsche, R. J., Moisa, M., Seifritz, E., Ruff, C. C., & Kleim, B. (2021) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-021-93647-1 · Cited by 11
BMRMI Reduces Depressive Rumination Possibly through Improving Abnormal FC of Dorsal ACC
Yang, M., Guo, Z., Lv, X., Zhang, Z.-Q., Wang, W., Wang, J., Hong, L., Lin, Y.-N., & Liu, C.-H. (2022) · Neural Plasticity · doi:10.1155/2022/8068988 · Cited by 12
“For example, the decreased FC between the sgACC and right MFG has been found to be associated with higher RRS scores [49, 50].”
BackgroundHealing Dysfunctional Identity: Bridging Mind-Body Intervention to Brain Systems
Ho, S.-H. S., & Nakamura, Y. (2017) · Journal of Behavioral and Brain Science · doi:10.4236/jbbs.2017.73013 · Cited by 11
“Functionally, the activity in amPFC during the retrieval of negative autobiographical memories has been found to show graded activations according to the degrees of grasping of these memories [51], along with other key regions of interest in our working model.”
BackgroundBrain Network Organization During Mindful Acceptance of EmotionsPreprint
Dixon, M. L., Girn, M., & Kalina Christoff, A. (2020) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2020.03.31.018697 · Cited by 12
Poggi, G., Klaus, F., & Pryce, C. R. (2024) · Brain Communications · doi:10.1093/braincomms/fcae140 · Cited by 11
“90 Accepting the need for caution, the findings of detailed, cause-effect rodent studies of mPFC < - > BLA-mediated emotional processing are nonetheless of translational relevance to furthering understanding of rACC-amygdala-related emotional functions (and dysfunctions) in humans.”
BackgroundDecoding acceptance and reappraisal strategies from resting state macro networks
Ghomroudi, P. A., Šiugždaitė, R., Messina, I., & Grecucci, A. (2024) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-024-68490-9 · Cited by 13
Kawakami, S., Okada, N., Satomura, Y., Shoji, E., Mori, S., Kiyota, M., Omileke, F., Hamamoto, Y., Morita, S., Koshiyama, D., et al. (2024) · Cerebral Cortex · doi:10.1093/cercor/bhae284 · Cited by 10
“The DMN is also a region reported to be activated by ruminative thinking (Berman and Jonides 2011), self-referential memory, and negative autobiographical memory (Kross et al. 2009; Nejad et al. 2013).”
BackgroundHow and when immersion and distancing are useful in emotion focused therapy for depression
Barbosa, E., Silva, S., Pinto‐Gouveia, J., & Salgado, J. (2017) · Psychotherapy Research · doi:10.1080/10503307.2017.1411626 · Cited by 13
I, Me, Mine: Variations on the Theme of Selfness
Skowronski, J. J. (2012) · Social Cognition · doi:10.1521/soco.2012.30.4.396 · Cited by 11
Metadata
- Authors
- Kross, E., Davidson, M., Weber, J., & Ochsner, K.
- Affiliations
- University of Michigan (US)
- Columbia University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Kross, Ethan
- Venue
- Biological Psychiatry
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2009-03
- Volume
- 65
- Issue
- 5
- Pages
- 361-366
- ISSN
- 0006-3223 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC2726992
- OpenAlex
- W2158177648
- Cited by
- 295
- References
- 40
- Citations by year
- 2026: 8 · 2025: 9 · 2024: 15 · 2023: 17 · 2022: 17 · 2021: 15 · 2020: 11 · 2019: 15 · 2018: 20 · 2017: 19 · 2016: 22 · 2015: 24 · 2014: 24 · 2013: 28 · 2012: 17
- FWCI
- 5.68
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Biological Psychiatry (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institute of Mental Health (R01MH076137, MH076137)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neural and Behavioral Psychology Studies
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Identity, Memory, and Therapy
- Keywords
- emotion regulation, rumination, self-referential processing, subgenual anterior cingulate cortex, medial prefrontal cortex, left prefrontal cortex, negative affect, cognitive strategies
- MeSH terms
- Adaptation, Psychological, Affect, Brain Mapping, Cognition, Emotions, Female, Gyrus Cinguli, Humans, Magnetic Resonance Imaging, Male, Memory, Prefrontal Cortex, Young Adult
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