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On the need for attention-aware systems: Measuring effects of interruption on task performance, error rate, and affective state
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“When interrupted during a task, it often takes more time to complete that task and more errors are committed (Bailey and Konstan, 2006).”
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“Authors in [33] reported that undesired disruptions cause workers to take up to 30% more time to finish the task and commit up to two times the number of errors.”
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“…medical settings from an inter-clinician communications perspective [15] and from work design and systems or processes’ perspective in hospitals [17] or the cost of interruptions [7, 12, 26, 35] which some have suggested are attributed to differences in workload at the point of interruption [10].”
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The Myth of Multitasking and What It Means for Future Pharmacists
Enz, S., Hall, A. C. G., & Williams, K. K. (2021) · American Journal of Pharmaceutical Education · doi:10.5688/ajpe8267 · Cited by 8
“When interruptions can occur at a boundary between tasks in this manner, one study showed error rates decrease by 50%.(31)”
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Jung-Krenzer, T., Kirchner-Krath, J., Retz, C., & Altmeyer, M. (2024) · Message Understanding Conference · doi:10.1145/3670653.3670681 · Cited by 5
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“Many studies in the cognitive psychology and HCI communities have demonstrated that interrupting users engaged in tasks by delivering notifications inopportunely can negatively impact task completion time, lead to more errors, and increase user frustration [6,16,22].”
BackgroundBalancing Awareness and Interruption in Mobile Patrol using Context-Aware Notification
Streefkerk, J. W., McCrickard, D. S., van Esch-Bussemakers, M. P., & Neerincx, M. A. (2012) · International Journal of Mobile Human Computer Interaction · doi:10.4018/jmhci.2012070101 · Cited by 6
“Longer task completion times, higher task switching costs, higher error rates, and increased frustration and anxiety have been demonstrated (Adamczyk & Bailey, 2004; Bailey & Konstan, 2006; Cutrell, Czerwinski & Horvitz, 2001; Nagata, 2003).”
BackgroundScaling Robotic Systems for Dismounted Warfighters
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“Management of interruptions by toggling becomes a challenge, and performance can deteriorate because of ineffective prioritization (Hopp, Smith, Clegg, & Heggestad, 2005) or poor timing (Bailey & Iqbal, 2008; Bailey & Konstan, 2005).”
BackgroundShould Laptops Be Allowed in the Classroom? Two Viewpoints
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“No previous work investigating interruption and notification strategies [1, 6, 14, 25, 32], enterprise crowdsourcing [4, 30, 35], or mobile crowdsourcing [31] performed a survey, a longitudinal experiment, and post-experiment interviews in an enterprise environment. is an important difference, as…”
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Züger, M., & Fritz, T. (2018) · IEEE International Conference on Program Comprehension (ICPC) · doi:10.1145/3196321.3196323 · Cited by 6
“Since working memory is usually low at task boundaries, the defer-toboundary policy aims at determining these natural breakpoints during work and delaying interruptions, such as email notifications, to these more opportune moments [2, 16].”
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Examining Interruptions in the Operating Room Using Simulation
Sirihorachai, R., Aebersold, M., Sarter, N. B., Harris, M. R., Marsh, V., & Redman, R. W. (2018) · Clinical Simulation in Nursing · doi:10.1016/j.ecns.2018.08.004 · Cited by 8
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Interruption Practice Reduces Procedural Errors at the Post-Completion Step
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“Memory for goals (MFG; Altmann & Trafton, 2002) has had great success in explaining why interruptions are so disruptive (Bailey & Konstan, 2006; Ratwani et al., 2008).”
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“When interrupted or overloaded, users inevitably receive increasing error rates and task completion times, as well as the accompanying frustration and motivation losses (Bailey & Konstan, 2006; Vertegaal, Shell, Chen, & Mamuji, 2006).”
BackgroundA Focus+Context Approach to Alleviate Cognitive Challenges of Editing and Debugging UML Models
Pourali, P., & Atlee, J. M. (2019) · ACM/IEEE International Conference on Model Driven Engineering Languages and Systems (MODELS) · doi:10.1109/models.2019.000-3 · Cited by 6
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Towards Activity-Aware Tool Support for Change Tasks
Kevic, K., & Fritz, T. (2017) · 2017 IEEE International Conference on Software Maintenance and Evolution (ICSME) · doi:10.1109/icsme.2017.48 · Cited by 5
“When these interruptions happen at an inappropriate time, it takes the developer a comparatively high effort to get back into the train of thought and errors are more likely to happen [45].”
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Lee, Y.-J., Wu, M.-H., Chang, C.-C., Chang, X.-J., & Chang, Y.-J. (2024) · Proceedings of the ACM on Human-Computer Interaction · doi:10.1145/3676514 · Cited by 5
“Prior studies have shown that pushing notifications at an improper time reduces users’ productivity [5] and increases their level of anxiety [75].”
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“To examine secondary-task performance, Bailey and Konstan (2006) introduced a secondary task either during the processing of the primary task or between two primary tasks.”
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“[3] have”
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Investigating the Use of Task Resumption Cues to Support Learning in Interruption-Prone Environments
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Context-Aware Perception for Cyber-Physical Systems
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Cognitive resource-aware unobtrusive service provisioning in ambient intelligence environments
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BackgroundCDNA: A Context-Aware Notification System for Driver Interruption
da Silva, A. V. D., Borges, L. C., & Vieira, V. (2018) · Brazilian Symposium on Human Factors in Computing Systems (IHC) · doi:10.1145/3274192.3274203 · Cited by 5
“A fact which corroborates this is that people take up to 27% more time to complete a task when they are interrupted and tend to make twice as many mistakes [2].”
BackgroundKandappu, T., Mehrotra, A., Misra, A., Musolesi, M., Cheng, S.-F., & Meegahapola, L. (2020) · Conference on Human Information Interaction and Retrieval · doi:10.1145/3343413.3377965 · Cited by 5
“A significant body of research has recently explore various aspects of users’ interaction with mobile notifications [1, 3, 4, 7, 22, 26, 27, 30].”
BackgroundBrazzolotto, P., & Michael, G. A. (2021) · European Review of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.erap.2021.100623 · Cited by 5
Toward Social Role-Based Interruptibility Management
Anderson, C., Heinisch, J. S., Deldari, S., Salim, F. D., Ohly, S., David, K., & Pejović, V. (2023) · IEEE Pervasive Computing · doi:10.1109/mprv.2022.3229905 · Cited by 7
Reducing Interruptions at Work with FlowLight
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“Additionally, interruptions have been shown to cause stress and frustration for the interrupted person and lead to an increase in the errors created after resuming the interrupted task [2, 3].”
BackgroundIntelligent Notification Systems
Mehrotra, A., & Musolesi, M. (2020) · Synthesis lectures on mobile and pervasive computing · doi:10.2200/s00965ed1v01y201911mpc014 · Cited by 64
Remind Me: Minimizing Negative Effects of Multitasking
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“There is ample evidence that interruptions at work can undermine the workflow, create additional workload, time pressure, and strain (Lin et al., 2013), and negatively affect task accomplishment (e.g., Baethge & Rigotti, 2013; Bailey & Konstan, 2006; Hacker, 2005).”
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“Previous work has shown that frequent task-switching disrupts cognition, lowers efficiency, and contributes to fatigue [8, 13, 33, 66, 74].”
InfluentialNicosia, M., & Kristensson, P. O. (2021) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-89385-9_14 · Cited by 4
“The idea of extending system design and development with sensors to create attention aware systems has been advocated in the literature [2,36].”
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“Previous research demonstrated a detrimental effect of task interruption on the operator’s primary task performance (Bailey & Konstan, 2006; Hart & Staveland, 1988; B. C. Lee & Duffy, 2015).”
AITentive: A Toolkit to Develop RL-based Attention Management Systems
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“Consequently, while accessible anywhere, performance of simultaneous activities such as walking, driving or even conversing may be impaired [2], [3], [4], [5].”
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“The impact of interruptions on task performance has been studied in various ways [3, 5, 15, 33], generally by asking participants to complete a task as fast as possible while various interruptions are sent to the interface.”
BackgroundDesign and Applications of GLANCE: GLanceable Alarm Notification for a User Centered Experience
Tarantino, L., Angelucci, D., Bonomo, A., Cardinali, A., & Paolo, S. D. (2021) · Applied Sciences · doi:10.3390/app11020669 · Cited by 4
“Literature studies on notifications are primarily conducted along two main research lines:”
BackgroundTask Intelligence for Search and Recommendation
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Design Framework for Interactive Highlighting Techniques
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“Notifications should be delivered at the most appropriate time, with a level of intrusiveness related to its level of urgency [1].”
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“Placing the user in control gives him/her agency and a feeling of empowerment, which is important since previous work has shown that interruptions in general [2], and error messages in particular, tend to cause feelings of unpleasantness, and can even cause measurable physiological responses such as increased skin con…”
BackgroundSharing awareness information improves interruption timing and social attraction
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“[ 2 ]). It therefore stands to reason that those who are interrupted or interrupt at better times should hold a more positive attitude towards their partners as measured via a social attraction scale.”
BackgroundAttention-Based Management of Information Flows in Synchronous Electronic Brainstorming
Ferreira, A., Herskovic, V., & Antunes, P. A. (2008) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-540-92831-7_1 · Cited by 4
“One study measured the effects of interruptions on task completion time, error rate, annoyance, and anxiety, and suggests that AUI should defer the presentation of peripheral information until task boundaries are reached [9].”
BackgroundWhat Belongs Together Comes Together
Seeliger, A., Schmidt, B., Schweizer, I., & Mühlhäuser, M. (2016) · ACM International Conference on Intelligent User Interfaces (IUI) · doi:10.1145/2856767.2856777 · Cited by 4
“Efficiency drops and mistake likelihood increases [1].”
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BackgroundBeyond Annoyance: The Latent Benefits of Distracting Website Features
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Glushakow, J. M. (2007) · Rutgers University Community Repository (Rutgers University) · doi:10.7282/t37m08cq · Cited by 4
“A recent study (Bailey and Konstan, 2006) involved participants working on a variety of primary and peripheral tasks representative of those performed by employees.”
BackgroundInterruptions in manufacturing from a distributed cognition perspective
Andreasson, R. (2014) · KTH Publication Database DiVA (KTH Royal Institute of Technology) · Cited by 4
Gaze‐Aware Visualisation: Design Considerations and Research Agenda
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Research on Pilot Workload Identification Based on EEG Time Domain and Frequency Domain
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Using LLMs to Model Notification Timing from Context-Sensitive Features
Lingler, A., Frijns, H. A., Boess, L., Murziakova, N., & Wintersberger, P. (2026) · Augmented Humans International Conference (AHs) · doi:10.1145/3795011.3795067 · Cited by 3
“Scientific findings have repeatedly highlighted that alternating between different tasks results in "switch costs", which emerge from the cognitive effort and time needed to interrupt one and engage in another task, and lead to reduced productivity as well as higher stress and error rates [7].”
Workplace Interruptions and Emotional Regulation
Choi, M., Jordan, P. J., & Troth, A. C. (2023) · Research on emotion in organizations · doi:10.1108/s1746-979120220000018007 · Cited by 4
Syndicus, M., & Wiese, B. S. (2024) · International Journal of Occupational Safety and Ergonomics · doi:10.1080/10803548.2024.2318941 · Cited by 3
“Multitasking effects are increased error rates and a general slowing of performance [44,45].”
BackgroundNavigating the clock and the corridor: how time and space influence unplanned conversations
Mandhana, D. M., & Ballard, D. I. (2024) · Corporate Communications An International Journal · doi:10.1108/ccij-06-2023-0089 · Cited by 3
Perpetual Mobile Availability as a Reason for Communication Overload
Kneidinger-Müller, B. (2017) · Advances in information quality and management · doi:10.4018/978-1-5225-2061-0.ch005 · Cited by 4
Dix, A. J., Weyers, B., Bowen, J., & Palanque, P. A. (2017) · Human-computer interaction series · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-51838-1_3 · Cited by 3
“…there is extensive non-formal literature on the impacts of interruptions and multi-tasking (Adamczyk and Bailey, 2004; Czerwinski et al, 2004; Bailey and Konstan, 2006) and the opportunity to find ways to match the pace and timing of delivery of notifications to the user’s tasks (Dix and…”
BackgroundZamani, M., Hall, K. J., Cunningham, A., Chin, N., Kent‐Ferguson, S., & Wadhwa, V. (2019) · Journal of Pharmacy Practice and Research · doi:10.1002/jppr.1543 · Cited by 3
Kim, M., Lee, J., Koh, Y., Lee, C., Lee, U., & Kim, A. (2024) · CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems · doi:10.1145/3613904.3642778 · Cited by 3
“They can disrupt ongoing tasks [5], induce stress and annoyance [25], and increase human error and task-completion time [4].”
BackgroundWorking memory capacity improves checking performance for errors on a simulated rail control task
McMullan, R. D., Aryal, N. R., Li, L., Wiggins, M. W., Clive, J., & Westbrook, J. I. (2025) · Applied Ergonomics · doi:10.1016/j.apergo.2025.104482 · Cited by 3
Metadata
- Authors
- Bailey, B. P., & Konstan, J. A.
- Affiliations
- University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign (US)
- University of Minnesota (US)
- Corresponding author
- Bailey, Brian P.
- Venue
- Computers in Human Behavior
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2006-07
- Volume
- 22
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 685-708
- ISSN
- 0747-5632 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2063748437
- Cited by
- 600
- References
- 61
- Citations by year
- 2026: 39 · 2025: 37 · 2024: 31 · 2023: 21 · 2022: 18 · 2021: 42 · 2020: 32 · 2019: 49 · 2018: 47 · 2017: 49 · 2016: 39 · 2015: 37 · 2014: 37 · 2013: 19 · 2012: 20
- FWCI
- 32.33
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Computers in Human Behavior (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › Information Systems and Management › Personal Information Management and User Behavior
- Social Sciences › Human Factors and Ergonomics › Human-Automation Interaction and Safety
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Human-Computer Interaction › Usability and User Interface Design
- Keywords
- interruptions, task performance, error rate, annoyance, anxiety, affective states, task completion time, primary task, task boundaries, presentation timing
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