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Homophobia is online: Sexual victimization and risks on the internet and mental health among bisexual, homosexual, pansexual, asexual, and queer adolescents
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The first aim of this study was to analyze the prevalence and frequency of different forms of online sexual victimization and risks among sexual minorities, including sexting, sexual orientation- and gender-based victimization, unwanted sexual attention, sextortion, and revenge porn. The second aim was to examine whether online sexual victimization and risks mediate the relationship between being a sexual minority and mental health outcomes, including depression and anxiety. The sample was composed of 1779 adolescents (50.9% girls) between 12 and 18 years old (mean age = 13.92, SD = 1.27), and 146 of them (8.2%) were sexual minorities (specifically, bisexual, homosexual, pansexual, asexual, or queer adolescents). About 17.3% of sexual minority adolescents have sent a sext. Four out of ten adolescents (41.1%) had experienced online sexual orientation discrimination and 28.4% gender-based victimization. More than forty percent (45.2%) experienced unwanted sexual attention, 9% were victims of sextortion, and 5.5% had been targets of revenge porn. Sexting, online sexual orientation victimization and gender-based victimization, and unwanted sexual attention partially mediated the relationship between being a sexual minority and mental health outcomes (i.e., depression and anxiety). More prevention programs aimed to reduce online sexual victimization and risks for sexual minorities are needed.
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“Findings across these studies show that sexual minorities were more likely to experience sextortion victimization than their heterosexual counterparts (Eaton et al., 2022; Gámez-Guadix & Incera, 2021; Henry et al., 2019; Pacheco et al., 2019; Patchin & Hinduja, 2020).”
From Sextortion: A Scoping Review (2025) · cites this paper as Gámez-Guadix & Incera, 2021
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“A preliminary version of the forms of victimization has shown adequate exploratory factorial validity in a previous study (Gámez -Guadix & Incera, 2021).”
From Assessing image-based sexual abuse: Measurement, prevalence, and temporal stability of sextortion and nonconsensual sexting (“revenge porn”) among adolescents (2022) · cites this paper as Gámez -Guadix & Incera, 2021
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“Findings across these studies show that sexual minorities were more likely to experience sextortion victimization than their heterosexual counterparts (Eaton et al., 2022; Gámez-Guadix & Incera, 2021; Henry et al., 2019; Pacheco et al., 2019; Patchin & Hinduja, 2020).”
InfluentialGámez-Guadix, M., Sorrel, M. A., & Martínez-Bacaicoa, J. (2023) · Sexuality Research and Social Policy · doi:10.1007/s13178-022-00775-y · Cited by 65
“The relationship between being a victim of unwanted sexual attention and being a victim of sexuality-based harassment among adolescents was also reported by Gámez-Guadix and Íncera (2021).”
BackgroundInfluentialSelf-citationMaheux, A. J., Burnell, K., Maza, M. T., Fox, K. A., Telzer, E. H., & Prinstein, M. J. (2024) · Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/jcpp.14085 · Cited by 66
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Self-citationEaton, A. A., Ramjee, D., & Saunders, J. F. (2023) · Victims & Offenders · doi:10.1080/15564886.2021.2022057 · Cited by 40
“…especially important in communities that serve sexual and racial minority men and women, as the data from this study reinforce the finding that both groups are at increased risk for both in-person IPV and TFSV (Cho, 2012; Daigle & Hawk, 2021; Gámez-Guadix & Incera, 2021; Tjaden & Thoennes, 2000).”
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Henry, N., & Umbach, R. (2024) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2024.108298 · Cited by 32
Sciacca, B., Mazzone, A., Loftsson, M., Norman, J. O., & Foody, M. (2023) · Journal of Interpersonal Violence · doi:10.1177/08862605231165777 · Cited by 35
“This distinction is not always present in the literature, which often collapses different forms of victimization (Gámez-Guadix & Incera, 2021).”
BackgroundOnline Sexual Harassment in Adolescence: A Scoping Review
Angela, F., María-Luisa, R.-D., Annalaura, N., & Ersilia, M. (2024) · Sexuality Research and Social Policy · doi:10.1007/s13178-023-00869-1 · Cited by 29
“Only two studies (Gámez-Guadix & Incera, 2021; Guerra et al., 2021) used phrases such as “behaviors that make you feel uncomfortable” or “make you feel bad”.”
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“Online spaces may also shape reluctance to disclose identity as they could be sources of bullying, harassment, and victimization (Escobar-Viera et al., 2018; Gámez-Guadix & Incera, 2021), perhaps especially in online venues that do not offer anonymity (Cho, 2018).”
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“…physical interactions to virtual relationships exposes individuals to greater vulnerability to cyberviolence; scientific studies emphasize that those identifying as non-hetero-normative face an elevated risk of becoming targets of such violence (Elipe et al., 2018; Gámez-Guadix & Incera, 2021).”
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“One study of SGM adolescents found that 40% reported online sexual orientation victimization (Gámez-Guadix & Incera, 2021).”
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“Given the intensive use of social media and the growing importance of online communities, heterosexism on the internet appears to be an escalating social problem that warrants greater attention and action (DeSmet et al., 2018; Gámez-Guadix & Incera, 2021).”
BackgroundA scoping review of technological tools for supporting victims of online sexual harassment
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“In addition, we reviewed previous scales that had demonstrated good psychometric properties in the adolescent population (Ga´mez-Guadix et al., 2022; Ga´mez-Guadix & Incera, 2021) and adapted them to the adult population (e.g., the word ‘‘girl’’ was substituted with ‘‘woman’’).”
Self-citationMartínez‐Bacaicoa, J., Henry, N., Mateos‐Pérez, E., & Gámez‐Guadix, M. (2024) · Psicothema · doi:10.7334/psicothema2023.315 · Cited by 20
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“Specifically, this concerns the relationship between negative well-being outcomes (e.g., depressive and anxiety symptoms, feeling worried and on guard), exposure, and both types of victimization (e.g., Cano et al., 2021; English et al., 2020; Gámez-Guadix & Incera, 2021; Tao & Fisher, 2022).”
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“This theory states that sexual minorities are chronically exposed to different stress factors—such as prejudice, discrimination, harassment, and victimization—due to their sexual orientation (e.g. Gámez-Guadix & Incera, 2021).”
Self-citationHOMO-MEX: A Mexican Spanish Annotated Corpus for LGBT+phobia Detection on Twitter
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“Outcomes of OSS included increased revictimization (Gámez-Guadix & Mateos-Pérez, 2019), symptoms of depression and anxiety (Dahlqvist & Gädin, 2018; Gámez-Guadix & Incera, 2021), risk of developing psychopathology (Say et al., 2015), and lower health-related quality of life (Ortega-Barón et al.,…”
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“In addition, based on previous research findings (Gámez-Guadix & Incera, 2021), we postulated that being a sexual minority would be associated with worse outcomes following victimization and that older people would suffer greater negative repercussions due to less normalization and familiarity with…”
Self-citationNagy, L., Bergeron, S., Koós, M., Gewirtz‐Meydan, A., Vaillancourt‐Morel, M., Kraus, S. W., Potenza, M. N., Demetrovics, Z., Dupuis-Fortier, F., Ballester‐Arnal, R., et al. (2025) · International Journal of Clinical and Health Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.ijchp.2024.100535 · Cited by 7
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“…y discriminación por razón de género incluyen el acoso basado en la identidad de género, los roles de género o la expresión de género, así como el acoso y la discriminación contra personas en función de su orientación sexual o su pertenen-cia a una minoría sexual (Gámez-Guadix & Incera, 2021).”
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“This is particularly concerning given that SM are at increased risk for victimization from intimate partner violence (IPV), including T-IPV such as revenge porn and cyber harassment (Gámez-Guadix & Incera, 2021; Srivastava et al., 2022).”
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“…belonging to a sexual minority are also associated with a higher risk of online sexual victimization since many young people turn to the internet to explore their sexual behaviour and identity, which places them in a position of vulnerability to possible perpetrators (Gámez-Guadix & Incera, 2021).”
InfluentialCyberhate Dissemination: A Systematic Literature Map
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“%) consists of papers that offer Empirical Evidence related to the topic of this study such as behavioral studies, observational studies, experiments and surveys [17], [18], [19], [20].”
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“Lastly, most research has focused on examining OHD among adolescents between the ages of 12 and 18 (Ash-Houchen & Lo, 2018; Gámez-Guadix & Incera, 2021; Kahle, 2020).”
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“Researchers exploring this topic often modify scales regarding offline victimization (e.g., Wright et al., 2022), or develop their own scales based on existing qualitative evidence (e.g., Gamez-Guadix & Incera, 2021).”
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“This higher frequency of sexual victimization can seriously affect mental health and increase the frequency of substance use (Gámez-Guadix & Incera, 2021; Hequem-bourg et al., 2011; Kammer-Kerwick et al., 2021; Lehavot & Simoni, 2011).”
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“The relationship between FoMO and each type of sexting behavior would be stronger among LGB+ individuals compared to heterosexual individuals (Bianchi et al., 2021b; Gámez-Guadix & Incera, 2021; Kokkinos & Krommida, 2022; Morelli et al., 2024; Paquette et al., 2022).”
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“Another study found 41% of sexual minority youth experienced discrimination via ICTs (compared to 3% of heterosexual youth) and 45% experienced unwanted sexual attention via ICTs (compared to 22% of heterosexual youth) (Gámez-Guadix & Incera, 2021).”
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“Similar results were found also by Gámez-Guadix and Incera (2021) in their study on online victimisation.”
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“Sexual and gender minority adolescents face even greater risks and safety concerns than their peers (Coyne et al., 2023; Jozsa et al., 2021), and experiences of online sexual victimization negatively impact the mental health of sexual minorities (Gámez-Guadix & Incera, 2021).”
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“Research has consistently shown that exposure to minority stressors, such as microaggressions and discrimination, is linked to increased rates of CDA victimisation in SGM youth and adults (Gámez-Guadix & Incera, 2021; Ronzón-Tirado et al., 2021; Yang et al., 2023).”
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“Indeed, within the realm of sexting research, prior studies have demonstrated that LGB+ individuals are inclined to participate in risky sexting behaviors to a greater extent than heterosexual individuals (G´amez-Guadix & Incera, 2021; Morelli et al., 2023).”
‘Risky visibility’: the online harassment of queer politicians
Stephenson, E., Williams, B., Mikołajczak, G., & Hayes, J. (2025) · European Journal of Politics and Gender · doi:10.1332/25151088y2025d000000075 · Cited by 2
Kalwani, N., Dietzel, C., & Dunn, S. (2025) · Canadian Journal of Communication · doi:10.3138/cjc-2024-0017 · Cited by 2
The 7th Workshop on Online Abuse and Harms (WOAH)
(2023) · doi:10.18653/v1/2023.woah-1 · Cited by 2
BOU-Guard: Uma Abordagem para Detecção de Conteúdo Impróprio na Internet
Bou, G., Rocha, A. M., Quincozes, V. E., Quincozes, S. E., & Kazienko, J. F. (2023) · Simpósio Brasileiro de Cibersegurança (SBSeg) · doi:10.5753/sbseg_estendido.2023.235046 · Cited by 1
Langarita, J. A., Méndez, R. L. P., & Montserrat, C. (2025) · European Journal of Social Work · doi:10.1080/13691457.2025.2461624 · Cited by 1
“…through the internet, as other research has also shown (Gómez-Baya et al., 2022; O’Reilly et al., 2023) – something which also involves certain risks (Gámez-Guadiz & Incera, 2021; Tortajada et al., 2021) – and they do identify some supportive adult figures who act as allies (Fingerhut, 2011).”
Bragard, E., Paradise, D., & Fisher, C. B. (2025) · Archives of Sexual Behavior · doi:10.1007/s10508-025-03185-4 · Cited by 1
“Sexting, defined as the sending of sexual text messages, images, or videos via online instant messaging platforms, occurs more frequently among sexual minority youth compared to heterosexual youth (Gámez-Guadix & Incera, 2021; Howard et al., 2021; Needham, 2021; Van Ouytsel et al., 2019, 2020a, b).”
InfluentialVelicu, A., & Tőkés, G. E. (2025) · Computers in Human Behavior Reports · doi:10.1016/j.chbr.2025.100871 · Cited by 1
Garaigordobil, M., Mollo-Torrico, J. P., & Rodríguez-Enríquez, M. (2025) · Healthcare · doi:10.3390/healthcare13233119 · Cited by 1
Vogler, S., Johns, M. M., Khanna, S., Lancaster, C., Sheridan-Johnson, J., Beach, L. B., & Mumford, E. A. (2025) · Journal of Interpersonal Violence · doi:10.1177/08862605251399680 · Cited by 1
Alonso-Fernández, M., Wachs, S., Mateos‐Pérez, E., & Gámez‐Guadix, M. (2026) · Cyberpsychology Behavior and Social Networking · doi:10.1177/21522715261425526 · Cited by 3
Self-citationDigital Violations: Technology-Facilitated Sexual Violence in Canadian Sport
Quinlan, A., & Fogel, C. (2026) · Violence Against Women · doi:10.1177/10778012261425945 · Cited by 1
Sextortion and suicide: Implications for adolescent image-based abuse
Patchin, J. W., & Hinduja, S. (2026) · Child Abuse & Neglect · doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2026.107981 · Cited by 2
Understanding Online Hate Toward Sexual and Gender Minorities: A Systematic Review
Mariotto, M., Costa, S., Brango, N. D., Corbelli, G., Verbena, S., Palladino, B. E., Zuffianò, A., & Ioverno, S. (2026) · Trauma Violence & Abuse · doi:10.1177/15248380261429520 · Cited by 1
Technology-Facilitated Sexual Violence: Typologies, Prevalence, and Associated Variables
Gámez‐Guadix, M., & Martínez‐Bacaicoa, J. (2022) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-98711-4_20-1 · Cited by 1
Self-citationCyber Risk among High School Students: A Thematic Review
Diana, I., Ismail, I. A., & Noor, M. Z. M. (2023) · Malaysian Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities (MJSSH) · doi:10.47405/mjssh.v8i4.2251 · Cited by 1
Gurusamy, D., Janarthanan, M., & Chakrabarti, P. (2024) · Universal Journal of Public Health · doi:10.13189/ujph.2024.120115 · Cited by 1
Gámez Guadix, M., Incera-Fernández, D., Román González, F. J., Mateos-Pérez, E., Borrajo, E., & Martínez Rodríguez, K. (2023) · Revista española de drogodependencias · doi:10.54108/10060 · Cited by 3
Self-citationStolle, L., & Lievens, E. (2023) · International Review of Law Computers & Technology · doi:10.1080/13600869.2023.2286558 · Cited by 2
“…and Coddington 2020; OSCE 2016; Stahel and Schoen 2019), cyber violence against sexual, ethnic and racial minorities (Francisco and Felmlee 2022; Gamez-Guadix and Incera 2021; Powell, Scott, and Henry 2020; Tong, Stoyche ff , and Mitra 2022), online hate against academics and scientists…”
Factores de riesgo vinculados a la cibervictimización en población joven y adolescente
Mora, J. G. M., & Moren, M. A. C. (2024) · Justicia · doi:10.17081/just.29.45.7116
Clancy, E. M., Thomas, B., Kelly, D., Hu, Y., & Klettke, B. (2026) · Technology in Society · doi:10.1016/j.techsoc.2026.103493
Meier, L. M., Westerhold, K., Edwards, C., Shaw, T. J., & Brem, M. J. (2025) · Violence and Victims · doi:10.1891/vv-2024-0019
Technology Facilitated Sexual Violence in Adolescence
Gkantona, G., & Ntagkas, F. (2025) · Advances in social networking and online communities book series · doi:10.4018/979-8-3693-4191-9.ch008
Body-Focused Process and Sexting Among LGBTQ+ Adolescents and Emerging Adults
Dodaj, A., Sesar, K., Bošnjak, M., Šilić, N., Marušić, M., Leko, A., Topić, P., Vukoja, A., Šaravanja, M., & Benković, A. (2025) · Journal of Homosexuality · doi:10.1080/00918369.2025.2541011
“Existing research suggests that it is more common and socially accepted among non-exclusively heterosexual adolescents Gámez-Guadix et al. (2017); Gámez-Guadix and Incera (2021); Hertlein et al. (2015); Kim et al. (2020); Ojeda et al. (2020); Van Ouytsel et al. (2019); Ybarra and Mitchell (2016).”
Amadori, A., Bullough, C., Eisenberg, M. E., Russell, S. T., & Brighi, A. (2025) · Journal of Homosexuality · doi:10.1080/00918369.2025.2543845
“Despite existing quantitative research documenting the prevalence of online homophobia (Elipe et al., 2018; Gámez-Guadix & Incera, 2021; Hinduja & Patchin, 2020), there remains a gap in understanding the social mechanisms that drive these behaviors.”
Durán-Guerrero, E., Sánchez, V., & Muñoz‐Fernández, N. (2025) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2025.108889
CHEN, Q., LU, Z., Liu, B., Xiao, Q., Zhu, Y., & Chan, K. L. (2024) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.26718519
Bystander Responses on Online Homophobic Bullying Among Adolescents and Youth: A Scoping Review
Basak, S., Farrell, N., Aşçı, S., Reynolds, M., & Norman, J. O. (2026) · Journal of Homosexuality · doi:10.1080/00918369.2025.2603467
“%) experienced online sexual orientation discrimination (Gámez-Guadix & Incera, 2021).”
Unprotected and Unheard: Professionals’ Perspectives on Sexual Violence Against SGM Youth
Gewirtz‐Meydan, A., Berkowitz, R., & Maoz, S. (2026) · Journal of Child Sexual Abuse · doi:10.1080/10538712.2026.2615992
“Sexual violence victimization rates among SGM youth are even higher (Blackburn et al., 2023; Gámez-Guadix & Incera, 2021).”
‘Boys need to be strong’: A mixed method study on online gendered violence and regulation
Amadori, A., Russell, S. T., & Brighi, A. (2026) · International journal of LGBTQ+ youth studies. · doi:10.1080/29968992.2026.2618036
“In the specific context of gender based victimization, a study conducted among Spanish adolescents found that 28.4% of sexual minority adolescents reported experiencing online gender-based victimization, compared to just 8.8% of their heterosexual peers (Gámez-Guadix & Incera, 2021).”
InfluentialMental Health on Victims of Non-consensual Intimate Image-sharing: A Scoping Review
Almeida, T. C., Cardoso, J., Caridade, S., Pires, A. R., Matos, A. F., Costa, M., & Cunha, O. S. (2026) · Sexuality Research and Social Policy · doi:10.1007/s13178-026-01312-x · Cited by 1
Chen, K., & Chen, Q. (2026) · International Journal of Bullying Prevention · doi:10.1007/s42380-026-00362-4
Zhang, J., Wu, Y., & Shi, X. (2026) · Psychology and Sexuality · doi:10.1080/19419899.2026.2678903
Metadata
- Authors
- Gámez-Guadix, M., & Incera, D.
- Venue
- Computers in Human Behavior
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2021-06
- Volume
- 119
- Pages
- 106728
- ISSN
- 0747-5632 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W3127618208
- Cited by
- 110
- References
- 78
- Citations by year
- 2026: 22 · 2025: 27 · 2024: 26 · 2023: 22 · 2022: 8 · 2021: 5
- FWCI
- 14.97
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Computers in Human Behavior (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- Biblos-e Archivo (Universidad Autónoma de Madrid) (submittedVersion, public-domain)
- Hispana (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- Government of Spain Ministry of Science and Innovation
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › LGBTQ Health, Identity, and Policy
- Social Sciences › Gender Studies › Sexual Assault and Victimization Studies
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Bullying, Victimization, and Aggression
- Keywords
- online sexual victimization, sexual minorities, adolescents, sexting, sextortion, revenge porn, unwanted sexual attention, sexual orientation discrimination, depression, anxiety, mental health, mediation, homophobia, queer youth
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