Unraveling cyber sexual abuse of minors: Psychometrics properties of the Multidimensional Online Grooming Questionnaire and prevalence by sex and age
Open accessAbstract
Background Online child grooming includes the online behaviors of an adult aimed at achieving some type of sexual interaction with a minor. However, to date, quantitative research that has investigated the strategies online groomers employ to gain their victim's trust is scarce. Objective To this end, the main aim of this study was to distinguish and measure different strategies of the online grooming process by developing and examining the psychometric properties of the Multidimensional Online Grooming Questionnaire (MOGQ). We also analyzed the prevalence of different strategies of online grooming among a sample of minors and their associations with grooming outcomes (i.e., online sexual solicitations and sexual interactions) and mental health (i.e., depression and anxiety). Participants and setting The sample consisted of 1704 participants between 12 and 15 years of age (864 girls; M age = 13.77, SD = 1.13). Methods Examination of the structure of the MOGQ was accomplished using Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA) and Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA). For this purpose, the sample was randomly divided into two subsamples. Results EFA and CFA showed a structure composed of five factors, including Use of Deception, Gift giving, Study of victim's environment, Sexualization, and Aggression. Second, the analysis of the relationship of online grooming with grooming outcomes (online sexual solicitations and sexual interactions) and mental health (i.e., depression and anxiety) provi…
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
Compared with other strategies such as deception and sexualization, promising job opportunities was reported to be used less frequently.
“Compared with other strategies, such as deception and sexualization, this strategy was reported to be used less frequently (GámezGuadix etal., 2021).”
From Unraveling the Complexities of Offender Strategies as Part of Online Sexual Grooming and Technology-Assisted Child Sexual Abuse: A Systematic Review (2026) · cites this paper as Gámez-Guadix et al., 2021
Four articles reported the use of material gifts.
“Gift-Giving. Four articles reported the use of material gifts (De Santisteban et al., 2018; Gámez-Guadix et al., 2021; Kloess et al., 2019).”
From Unraveling the Complexities of Offender Strategies as Part of Online Sexual Grooming and Technology-Assisted Child Sexual Abuse: A Systematic Review (2026) · cites this paper as Gámez-Guadix et al., 2021
The use of material gifts was more prevalent in cases involving female victims.
“This strategy was more prevalent in cases involving female victims (Gámez-Guadix etal., 2021).”
From Unraveling the Complexities of Offender Strategies as Part of Online Sexual Grooming and Technology-Assisted Child Sexual Abuse: A Systematic Review (2026) · cites this paper as Gámez-Guadix et al., 2021
According to Gámez-Guadix et al. (2021), sexualizing conversations and interactions is a central feature of OSG.
“According to Gámez-Guadix etal. (2021), sexualizing conversations and interactions is a central feature of OSG.”
From Unraveling the Complexities of Offender Strategies as Part of Online Sexual Grooming and Technology-Assisted Child Sexual Abuse: A Systematic Review (2026) · cites this paper as Gámez-Guadix et al., 2021
Seven articles described how individuals sexualized conversations in order to incite victims to engage in, and initiate, sexual acts/activities.
“Sexualizing Conversations. Seven articles described how individuals sexualized conversations in order to incite victims to engage in, and initiate, sexual acts/activities (Chiang, 2018; Gámez-Guadix etal., 2021; Kloess etal., 2017, 2019; Seymour-Smith & Kloess, 2021; Powell etal., 2021; Shannon, 2008).”
From Unraveling the Complexities of Offender Strategies as Part of Online Sexual Grooming and Technology-Assisted Child Sexual Abuse: A Systematic Review (2026) · cites this paper as Gámez-Guadix et al., 2021
On average, girls experience higher levels of SOG, and SOG levels generally increase with victim age.
“On average, girls experience higher levels of SOG, and SOG levels generally increase with victim age”
From 3.2 Sexual Online Grooming of Children – A Short Overview of the Offender Literature (2025) · cites this paper as Gámez-Guadix et al., 2021
The strategy of progressive sexualization showed the closest associations with online sexual solicitations and sexual interactions.
“while the strategy of progressive sexualization showed the closest associations with online sexual solicitations and sexual interactions (Gámez-Guadix et al., 2021).”
From 3.2 Sexual Online Grooming of Children – A Short Overview of the Offender Literature (2025) · cites this paper as Gámez-Guadix et al., 2021
Cites
Social Influence: Compliance and Conformity
Cialdini, R. B., & Goldstein, N. J. (2004) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.55.090902.142015 · Cited by 6,077 · see citing works
O’connor, B. P. (2000) · Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, & Computers · doi:10.3758/bf03200807 · Cited by 4,116 · see citing works
Multiple online victimization of Spanish adolescents: Results from a community sample
Montiel, I., Carbonell, E., & Pereda, N. (2016) · Child Abuse & Neglect · doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2015.12.005 · Cited by 125 · see citing works
Kloess, J. A., Hamilton-Giachritsis, C. E., & Beech, A. R. (2019) · Sexual Abuse · doi:10.1177/1079063217720927 · Cited by 118 · see citing works
Gámez-Guadix, M., & Incera, D. (2021) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2021.106728 · Cited by 110 · see citing works
Self-citationShannon, D. (2008) · Journal of Scandinavian Studies in Criminology and Crime Prevention · doi:10.1080/14043850802450120 · Cited by 78 · see citing works
“Cause ur special”: Understanding trust and complimenting behaviour in online grooming discourse
Lorenzo-Dus, N., & Izura, C. (2017) · Journal of Pragmatics · doi:10.1016/j.pragma.2017.01.004 · Cited by 71 · see citing works
Hernández, M. P., Schoeps, K., Maganto, C., & Montoya-Castilla, I. (2021) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2020.106569 · Cited by 66 · see citing works
Bergen, E., Davidson, J., Schulz, A., Schuhmann, P., Johansson, A., Santtila, P., & Jern, P. (2014) · Victims & Offenders · doi:10.1080/15564886.2013.873750 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
Risk factors for being a victim of online grooming in adolescents
Schoeps, K., Montoya-Castilla, I., Garaigordobil, M., & Peris Hernández, M. (2020) · Psicothema · doi:10.7334/psicothema2019.179 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
Villacampa, C., & Gómez, M. J. (2017) · International Review of Victimology · doi:10.1177/0269758016682585 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Flagged first, then by citations
Cited by
Sorted by citations
The prevalence of child sexual abuse with online sexual abuse added
Finkelhor, D., Turner, H., & Colburn, D. (2024) · Child Abuse & Neglect · doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2024.106634 · Cited by 105 · see citing works
A Preventive Intervention to Reduce Risk of Online Grooming Among Adolescents
Calvete, E., Orue, I., & Gámez-Guadi, M. (2022) · Psychosocial Intervention · doi:10.5093/pi2022a14 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Schittenhelm, C., Kops, M., Moosburner, M., Fischer, S. M., & Wachs, S. (2025) · Adolescent Research Review · doi:10.1007/s40894-024-00248-w · Cited by 25 · see citing works
“In two other studies that used questionnaires with subscales, specific prevalence rates also differed by subscale (Bergmann & Baier, 2016; Gámez-Guadix et al., 2021).”
Self-citationPage, S., McFeeters, A., Rani, N. H. M., Slater, C., Stevenson, J., Quayle, E., & Fry, D. (2025) · Child Abuse Review · doi:10.1002/car.70048 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Gámez‐Guadix, M., Mateos‐Pérez, E., Alcázar, M. A., Martínez‐Bacaicoa, J., & Wachs, S. (2023) · Journal of Adolescence · doi:10.1002/jad.12240 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Self-citationOnline Grooming: Factores de Riesgo y Modus Operandi a Partir de un Análisis de Sentencias Españolas
Riberas-Gutiérrez, M., Reneses, M., Gómez-Dorado, A., Serranos-Minguela, L., & Bueno-Guerra, N. (2024) · Anuario de Psicología Jurídica · doi:10.5093/apj2023a9 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Schittenhelm, C., Weber, C., Kops, M., & Wachs, S. (2025) · Journal of Youth and Adolescence · doi:10.1007/s10964-025-02192-x · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Self-citation3.2 Sexual Online Grooming of Children – A Short Overview of the Offender Literature
Schmidt, A. F. (2025) · Sexual Online Grooming of Children · doi:10.5771/9783748903291-135 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Porcelli, C., Anderson, F., & Kloess, J. A. (2026) · Trauma, Violence, & Abuse · doi:10.1177/15248380251411261
- Authors
- Gámez-Guadix, M., De Santisteban, P., Wachs, S., & Wright, M.
- Affiliations
- University of Potsdam (DE)
- Pennsylvania State University (US)
- Venue
- Child Abuse & Neglect
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2021-10
- Volume
- 120
- Pages
- 105250
- ISSN
- 0145-2134 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W3195576567
- Cited by
- 43
- References
- 11
- Citations by year
- 2026: 11 · 2025: 14 · 2024: 7 · 2023: 8 · 2022: 3
- FWCI
- 4.07
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- hdl.handle.net
- Licence
- Locations
- Child Abuse & Neglect (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- publish.UP (University of Potsdam) (submittedVersion)
- Biblos-e Archivo (Universidad Autónoma de Madrid) (submittedVersion, public-domain)
- Funders
- Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovación (RTI2018-101167-B-I00)
- España Ministerio de Ciencia Innovación y Universidades (RTI2018-101167-B-I00)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Information Systems › Cybercrime and Law Enforcement Studies
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Psychopathy, Forensic Psychiatry, Sexual Offending
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child Abuse and Trauma
- Keywords
- online child grooming, deception, gift-giving, sexualization, aggression, online sexual solicitation, sexual interaction, depression, anxiety, child mental health, instrument development
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Adult, Animals, Child, Child Abuse, Sexual, Female, Grooming, Humans, Male, Psychometrics, Surveys and Questionnaires, Prevalence, Minors
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
