Cited by 346Extraction and Separation ProcessesMetal Extraction and BioleachingRecycling and Waste Management Techniques

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A review on the recycling of spent lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) by the bioleaching approach

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Roy, Joseph Jegan, Cao, Bin, Madhavi, Srinivasan·2021·Chemosphere

DOI 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2021.130944

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Abstract

This review discusses the latest trend in recovering valuable metals from spent lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) to meet the technological world's critical metal demands. Spent LIBs are a secondary source of valuable metals such as Li (5%-7%), Ni (5%-10%), Co (5%-25%), Mn (5-11%), and non-metal graphite. Recycling is essential for the battery industry to extract valuable critical metals from secondary sources to develop new and novel high-tech LIBs for various applications such as eco-friendly technologies, renewable energy, emission-free electric vehicles, and energy-saving lightings. LIB waste is currently undergoing high-temperature pyrometallurgical or hydrometallurgical processes to recover valuable metals, and these processes have proven to be successful and feasible. These methods, however, are not preferable due to the difficulties in controlling the process, secondary waste produced, high operational cost, and high risk of scaling up. Biotechnological approaches can be promising alternatives to pyrometallurgical and hydrometallurgical technologies in metal recovery from LIB waste. Microbiological metal dissolution or bioleaching has gained popularity for metal extraction from ores, concentrates, and recycled or residual materials in recent years. This technology is eco-friendly, safe to handle, and reduces operating costs and energy demands. The pre-treatment process (material preparation), microorganisms used in the bioleaching of LIBs, factors influencing the bioleaching process, methods of enhancing the leaching efficiency, regeneration of electrode materials, and future aspects have been discussed in detail.

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“In fungal leaching, sucrose and glucose act as carbon sources, while fungi— mainly Aspergillus niger —produce various organic acids (e.g., citric, gluconic, oxalic, malic, fumaric, lactic, pyruvic, succinic) to extract metals [135–137].”
Bioleaching of valuable metals from spent lithium iron phosphate batteries using food-grade Lactobacillus acidophilus
Xia, Q., Zhang, D., Li, Z., Yang, C., Liu, P., Wang, H., Jin, Y., Li, M., Dong, J., Guan, X., et al. (2025) · Chemical Engineering Journal · doi:10.1016/j.cej.2025.166799 · Cited by 14
Strategies for anti-oxidative stress and anti-acid stress in bioleaching of LiCoO2 using an acidophilic microbial consortium
Liu, D., Shi, H., Chen, G., Zhang, X., Gu, T., Zhu, M., & Tan, W. (2022) · Extremophiles · doi:10.1007/s00792-022-01270-3 · Cited by 13
“proton gradient shock from the outside to the inside of the bacterial cells, forcing the AMC to make adjustments and adaptation to the harsh environment (Roy et al. 2021).”
Background
Efficient Photo-Oxidation Leaching of Ni and Co in a Spent Lithium-Ion Battery Cathode by Homogeneous UV/H2O2
Dong, X., Huang, X., Tang, R., Min, Y., Xu, Q., Hu, Z., & Shi, P. (2023) · ACS Sustainable Chemistry & Engineering · doi:10.1021/acssuschemeng.3c00390 · Cited by 14
Efficient recovery of electrode materials from lithium iron phosphate batteries through heat treatment, ball milling, and foam flotation
Wang, L., Zhu, H., Bi, H., Bai, Y., & Zhang, C. (2024) · Journal of Material Cycles and Waste Management · doi:10.1007/s10163-024-01919-5 · Cited by 14
“Among them, pyrometallurgy and biological metallurgy are not suitable for large-scale industrial applications due to inherent limitations [8–12].”
Strategy for Efficient Recovery of NCM Materials by the Reagent-Free Method: Green Recovery of Lithium and High-Value Byproducts through Capacitive Deionization Reverse Applications
Men, L., Lin, H.-P., Zhu, L., & Zhou, Y. (2024) · ACS Sustainable Chemistry & Engineering · doi:10.1021/acssuschemeng.4c01654 · Cited by 13
Mechanism of surfactant effect on bacterial adsorption during bioleaching of lepidolite
Xu, C., Zhao, X., Duan, H., Gu, W., Zhang, D., Wang, R., & Lu, X. (2024) · Applied Clay Science · doi:10.1016/j.clay.2024.107646 · Cited by 13
The future of recycling for critical metals: The example of EV batteries
Zhao, Y., & Kaur, G. (2025) · Geosystems and Geoenvironment · doi:10.1016/j.geogeo.2025.100376 · Cited by 13
Retrieving Spent Cathodes from Lithium‐Ion Batteries through Flourishing Technologies
Raj, B., Sahoo, M. K., Nikoloski, A. N., Singh, P., Basu, S., & Mohapatra, M. (2022) · Batteries & Supercaps · doi:10.1002/batt.202200418 · Cited by 13
Recycling Critical Metals from Spent Lithium-Ion Battery Cathodes: Technologies, Challenges, and Perspectives to Sustainable Closed-Loop Systems
Zhang, Q., Deng, H.-L., Huang, R., Zhang, C., Zhang, C.-Z., Wang, C.-Y., Liu, Y., Gao, X., Yan, M., & Liu, Z. (2026) · ACS Energy Letters · doi:10.1021/acsenergylett.5c03663 · Cited by 14
Is Banning Fossil-Fueled Internal Combustion Engines the First Step in a Realistic Transition to a 100% RES Share?
Danieli, P., Masi, M., Lazzaretto, A., Carraro, G., Cin, E. D., & Volpato, G. (2023) · Energies · doi:10.3390/en16155690 · Cited by 13
Sequential Recovery of Critical Metals from Leached Liquor of Processed Spent Lithium-Ion Batteries
Ajiboye, E. A., & Dzwiniel, T. L. (2023) · Batteries · doi:10.3390/batteries9110549 · Cited by 12
“It is considered a green method, but it suffers from extremely slow kinetics and time-consuming processes [20–22].”
Method
Efficient separation of layered oxide cathode materials and Al collectors in spent lithium-ion batteries
Fu, Z., Zeng, W., Wang, J., Li, Y., & Mu, S. C. (2025) · Journal of Cleaner Production · doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2025.145643 · Cited by 12
Management strategies and recycling technologies: Lessons learned and roadmap for sustainable circular battery waste management in Saudi Arabia
Islam, M. T., Ali, A., Qadir, S. A., & Shahid, M. (2024) · Green Technologies and Sustainability · doi:10.1016/j.grets.2024.100160 · Cited by 13
Bioleaching of Lithium-Ion Battery Black Mass: A Comparative Study on Gluconobacter oxydans and Acidithiobacillus thiooxidans
Mandl, M. M., Lerchbammer, R., & Gerold, E. (2025) · Metals · doi:10.3390/met15101112 · Cited by 10
Mechanical activation-assisted technology for recovering valuable metal elements from spent lithium-ion batteries: A review
Shi, H., Teng, L., Liu, W., Rohani, S., He, M., Yu, W., Liu, Q., & Lv, X. (2025) · Applied Energy · doi:10.1016/j.apenergy.2025.127285 · Cited by 10
The recycling of spent lithium iron phosphate batteries: A review on current progresses and technologies from an industrial utilization perspective
Du, J., Zhang, G., Qing, J., Fang, K., Cao, Z., Li, Q., Wang, M., Guan, W., Wu, X., & Wu, S. (2026) · Journal of Cleaner Production · doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2026.147582 · Cited by 13
Recovery of lithium from spent LFP and NCA batteries by electro-oxidation process and synthesis of cathode material from recycled precursors
Amarray, A., Boutahar, A., Fallah, H. E., Silvère, K. T., Bendali, A. E., Boutajanouit, L., Aqil, M., Alami, J., & Dahbi, M. (2024) · Journal of Energy Storage · doi:10.1016/j.est.2024.114001 · Cited by 10
A review of the role of advanced materials in enhancing performance and thermal management of Li-ion batteries
Yuan, Y., & Heidarshenas, B. (2024) · International Communications in Heat and Mass Transfer · doi:10.1016/j.icheatmasstransfer.2024.108213 · Cited by 11
Closing the Loop on Lithium-Ion Battery Cathodes: A Green Electrometallurgical Recycling Approach
Ding, Z., Li, J., Huang, Y., Lin, H., Wei, P., Li, J., Zhuge, X., Yang, Z., Qu, K., & Ren, Y. (2025) · ACS Sustainable Chemistry & Engineering · doi:10.1021/acssuschemeng.4c07920 · Cited by 10
Recovery of valuable metals from spent lithium ion battery: Technologies, sustainability, and challenges in India
Kumar, N., Mishra, A., & Kumar, D. (2025) · Minerals Engineering · doi:10.1016/j.mineng.2025.109312 · Cited by 11
Bioleaching for Heavy Metal Extraction from E-waste: A Sustainable Approach
Godbole, V., Kukrety, S., Gautam, P., Bisht, M., & Pal, M. K. (2023) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-25678-3_4 · Cited by 10
Mathematical modeling of metal recovery from E-waste using a dark-fermentation-leaching process
Russo, F., Luongo, V., Mattei, M. R., & Frunzo, L. (2022) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-022-08106-2 · Cited by 9
“(4)–(8) were specified as: (6) dSgas,i dt = − QgasSgas,i Vgas + Vliq Vgas ρT ,i(t, S, Sgas), i = 1, .”
Green and efficient method for the realization of full-component recovery of LiFePO 4 black powder
Gao, M., Sun, F., Peng, W., Dai, W., Zhang, Z., Zhang, L., Zhang, H., Ma, Y., Zhang, L., & Song, D. (2024) · Green Chemistry · doi:10.1039/d4gc01444h · Cited by 9
High-efficiency regeneration of spent LiCoO2 battery by constructing a layer intermediate
Huang, X., Zhang, Z., Zhang, Y., Min, Y., & Shi, P. (2024) · Journal of Cleaner Production · doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2024.144326 · Cited by 9
High-temperature hydrothermal reduction for selective extraction of lithium from spent lithium-ion batteries
Dai, X., Qi, T., Li, X., Peng, Z., Liu, G., Zhou, Q., Wang, Y., & Shen, L. (2025) · Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry · doi:10.1016/j.jiec.2025.05.049 · Cited by 9
Selective bioleaching of lithium from waste lithium iron phosphate batteries using spent medium produced by Acidithiobacillus thiooxidans
Fritze, M., & Hedrich, S. (2026) · Hydrometallurgy · doi:10.1016/j.hydromet.2026.106653 · Cited by 10
Fabrication of multifunctional cotton textile with battery waste- derived graphene oxide for enhanced joule heating and electromagnetic interference shielding
Suryaprabha, T., & Park, S. (2023) · Journal of Industrial Textiles · doi:10.1177/15280837231178945 · Cited by 9
Lactobacillus pentosus enabled bioleaching of red mud at high pulp density and simultaneous production of lactic acid without supplementation of neutralizers
Han, Z., Gao, B., Cheng, H., Zhou, H., Wang, Y., & Chen, Z. (2024) · Journal of environmental chemical engineering · doi:10.1016/j.jece.2024.114650 · Cited by 8
Structural Composition and Disassembly Techniques for Efficient Recycling of Waste Lithium‐Ion Batteries
Zhu, Z., & Gao, X. (2024) · Advanced Sustainable Systems · doi:10.1002/adsu.202400610 · Cited by 8
Bioleaching of cobalt from sulfide tailings generated by vanadium-titanium-magnetite ore beneficiation
Deng, S., Bian, Q., Yang, W., Long, T., Chen, S., & Yan, C. (2024) · Journal of environmental chemical engineering · doi:10.1016/j.jece.2024.114939 · Cited by 8
Lithium-ion battery recycling evolution: Could entire cell regeneration be the next step?
Tariq, A., Ai, Q., Zhu, Y., Schmeltzer, K., Xie, T., & Lou, J. (2025) · Next Energy · doi:10.1016/j.nxener.2024.100234 · Cited by 8
E-Waste Recycling: A Comprehensive Review on Metal Recovery and the Factors Affecting Bioleaching
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Authors: Roy, J. J., Cao, B., & Madhavi, S.
Affiliations: Nanyang Technological University (SG)
Corresponding author: Roy, Joseph Jegan
Cao, Bin
ORCID: Roy, Joseph Jegan
Cao, Bin
Venue: Chemosphere
Publisher: Elsevier BV
Published: 2021-11
Volume: 282
Pages: 130944
ISSN: 0045-6535 (ISSN-L)
DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2021.130944
OpenAlex: W3164213697
Cited by: 346
References: 146
Citations by year: 2026: 54 · 2025: 87 · 2024: 84 · 2023: 73 · 2022: 38 · 2021: 10
FWCI: 4.32
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: green
hdl.handle.net
Licence: www.elsevier.com/tdm/userlicense/1.0/ (tdm)
www.elsevier.com/legal/tdmrep-license (tdm)
doi.org/10.15223/policy-017 (stm-asf)
doi.org/10.15223/policy-037 (stm-asf)
doi.org/10.15223/policy-012 (stm-asf)
doi.org/10.15223/policy-029 (stm-asf)
doi.org/10.15223/policy-004 (stm-asf)
Locations: Chemosphere (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
DR-NTU (Nanyang Technological University) (submittedVersion)
Funders: National Research Foundation of Singapore
Government of Singapore Ministry of National Development
National Environment Agency
Topics: Physical Sciences › Materials Science › Metals and Alloys › Extraction and Separation Processes
Physical Sciences › Materials Science › Metals and Alloys › Metal Extraction and Bioleaching
Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Waste Management and Disposal › Recycling and Waste Management Techniques
Keywords: spent lithium-ion batteries, battery recycling, bioleaching, critical metal recovery, lithium recovery, nickel recovery, cobalt recovery, manganese recovery, graphite recovery
MeSH terms: Electrodes, Lithium, Metals, Electric Power Supplies, Recycling

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A review on the recycling of spent lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) by the bioleaching approach

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