When fear forms memories: threat of shock and brain potentials during encoding and recognition
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The anticipation of highly aversive events is associated with measurable defensive activation, and both animal and human research suggests that stress-inducing contexts can facilitate memory. Here, we investigated whether encoding stimuli in the context of anticipating an aversive shock affects recognition memory. Event-related potentials (ERPs) were measured during a recognition test for words that were encoded in a font color that signaled threat or safety. At encoding, cues signaling threat of shock, compared to safety, prompted enhanced P2 and P3 components. Correct recognition of words encoded in the context of threat, compared to safety, was associated with an enhanced old-new ERP difference (500-700 msec; centro-parietal), and this difference was most reliable for emotional words. Moreover, larger old-new ERP differences when recognizing emotional words encoded in a threatening context were associated with better recognition, compared to words encoded in safety. Taken together, the data indicate enhanced memory for stimuli encoded in a context in which an aversive event is merely anticipated, which could assist in understanding effects of anxiety and stress on memory processes.
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Studies have reported increased late positive potential (LPP) amplitude for uncertain aversive cues compared with certain safe cues in threat-of-shock designs.
“studies have reported increased LPP amplitude for uncertain aversive cues compared with certain safe cues in threat-of-shock designs (21, 31)”
From Anticipatory threat responses mediate the relationship between mindfulness and anxiety: A cross-sectional study (2022) · cites this paper as [31]
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Barg, G., Carboni, A., Roche, T., Nin, V., & Carretié, L. (2019) · Journal of Psychophysiology · doi:10.1027/0269-8803/a000246 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Xu, Y., Huang, W., Yan, X., Lu, F., & Li, M. (2022) · Frontiers in Public Health · doi:10.3389/fpubh.2022.988577 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“With respect to uncertainty processing, studies have reported increased LPP amplitude for uncertain aversive cues compared with certain safe cues in threat-of-shock designs (21, 31).”
BackgroundDisruption of moral perception under acute anxiety: behavioral and electrophysiological evidence
Cheng, J., Cui, F., Chen, Y., & Wu, J. (2025) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-025-08360-3 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Stress, Memory, and Memory Impairment
Musić, S., & Rossell, S. L. (2016) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-800951-2.00017-0 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Chaisson, F. M., Cox, C. R., Alford, A. M., Burleigh, L. M., Greening, S. G., & Lucas, H. D. (2024) · Biological Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.biopsycho.2024.108877 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Experimental validation of psychopathology in personalized psychiatry
Hamm, A. O. (2019) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-813176-3.00007-9 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Self-citationPain Anticipation and Memory: An Event-Related Potential Study
Harris, H. (2015)
Cheng, J., Wu, J., & Cui, F. (2025) · Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience · doi:10.1093/scan/nsaf093
Meaningless but memorable: Reward associations boost recognition of abstract visual stimuli
Grassi, F., Semmelhack, E. A., & Schacht, A. (2026) · Cognitive Affective & Behavioral Neuroscience · doi:10.3758/s13415-025-01387-w
- Authors
- Weymar, M., Bradley, M. M., Hamm, A. O., & Lang, P. J.
- Affiliations
- University of Florida (US)
- Universität Greifswald (DE)
- Corresponding author
- Weymar, Mathias
- Venue
- Cortex
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2013-03
- Volume
- 49
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 819-826
- ISSN
- 0010-9452 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC3632083
- OpenAlex
- W1990116943
- Cited by
- 75
- References
- 47
- Citations by year
- 2026: 1 · 2025: 2 · 2024: 2 · 2023: 4 · 2022: 4 · 2021: 5 · 2020: 4 · 2019: 10 · 2018: 7 · 2017: 8 · 2016: 6 · 2015: 8 · 2014: 6 · 2013: 5 · 2012: 2
- FWCI
- 3.44
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- europepmc.org
- Locations
- Cortex (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (acceptedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- NIMH (P50-MH072850 and MH082702)
- German Research Society (Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft, DFG) (Forschungsstipendium, WE 4801/1-1)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory Processes and Influences
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory and Neural Mechanisms
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neural and Behavioral Psychology Studies
- Keywords
- threat anticipation, recognition memory, memory encoding, event-related potentials, P2 component, P300, emotional words, color cues, anxiety, stress
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Brain Mapping, Cerebral Cortex, Electroencephalography, Emotions, Evoked Potentials, Fear, Female, Humans, Male, Memory, Reaction Time, Stress, Psychological, Recognition, Psychology, Young Adult
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