The effect of immersion on sense of presence and affect when experiencing an educational scenario in virtual reality: A randomized controlled study
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1 Abstract Virtual reality (VR) technology has been used to learn skills for decades. While no standardized measure exists for learning outcomes in VR training, commonly explored outcomes are immersion, sense of presence and emotions. Methods In this paper, the objective was to investigate these outcomes in two VR conditions, immersive and desktop in a randomized controlled trial with a parallel design. The sample consisted of 134 university students (70 women, mean age 23 years , SD = 2.99). These were randomized using a covariate-adaptive randomization procedure based on stratification by gender into two interventions; play out a VR scenario in either desktop (control group) or immersive VR (intervention group). The setting was a university lab. Results There was a significant within subject effect for positive affect and a significant between-group effect for the immersive compared to desktop VR groups. Positive affect was reduced after interacting with the VR scenario in both the immersive and desktop versions, however, positive affect was overall higher in the immersive, compared to the desktop version. The results show higher scores for sense of presence ( d = 0.90, p < 0.001) and positive affect pre- and post-scenario in the immersive VR condition ( d = 0.42, p = 0.017 and d = 0.54, p = 0.002) compared to the desktop condition. Conclusion Immersive VR may be beneficial in higher education as it promotes high levels of sense of presence as well as positive emotions. When it comes to changing the immediate emotions of the students, type of VR does not seem to matter. The project was funded by the Norwegian Directorate for Higher Education and Skills.
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Differences in immersion propensity may account for variability in subjective presence and emotional responses, especially considering that immersion has been associated with a greater sense of presence, and that presence can influence emotional and behavioral responses in VR environments.
“Differences in immersion propensity may account for variability in subjective presence and emotional responses, especially considering that immersion has been associated with a greater sense of presence, and that presence can influence emotional and behavioral responses in VR environments (L ø nne et al., 2023).”
From Speaking face-to-face with a virtual avatar to reduce anxiety in students who stutter: Tool development and pilot study results. (2026) · cites this paper as Lønne et al., 2023
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- Authors
- Lønne, T. F., Karlsen, H. R., Langvik, E., & Saksvik-Lehouillier, I.
- Affiliations
- Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NO)
- Venue
- Heliyon
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2023-06
- Volume
- 9
- Issue
- 6
- Pages
- e17196
- ISSN
- 2405-8440 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC10285157
- OpenAlex
- W4380372914
- Cited by
- 76
- References
- 62
- Citations by year
- 2026: 23 · 2025: 33 · 2024: 20
- FWCI
- 13.16
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Heliyon (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
- NORA - Norwegian Open Research Archives (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Human-Computer Interaction › Virtual Reality Applications and Impacts
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Flow Experience in Various Fields
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Information Systems › Education and Learning Interventions
- Keywords
- virtual reality, immersion, presence, positive affect, virtual reality in education, affective learning, higher education, university students
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