Liquid Air Energy Storage (LAES) as a large-scale storage technology for renewable energy integration – A review of investigation studies and near perspectives of LAES

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

EES systems may provide peak shaving, load shifting and support the realization of smart grids.

“EES systems may also provide other useful services such as peak shaving, load shifting and supporting the realization of smart grids ( Luo et al., 2015 ).”

• cites Luo et al., 2015 sourceSupported

May combine two claims.

The round trip efficiency for LAES is dependent on effective management of heat flux, but can reach values higher than 80% under ideal circumstances.

“The round trip efficiency for the case of LAES is dependent on the effective management of heat flux, but can reach values higher than 80% under ideal circumstances ( Luo et al., 2015 )”

• cites Luo et al., 2015 sourcePartly supported

  The Liquid air Storage row in the comparison table lists a cycle-efficiency range of 55–80+%, which supports the possibility of exceeding 80%. Sections 3.2 and 3.10 describe LAES heat exchangers and thermal-energy conversion, but do not state that its round-trip efficiency depends on effective heat-flux management or specify ideal circumstances for the upper value. Page numbers are unavailable in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.78)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Electrical Energy Storage is viewed as one potential way to support integration of variable renewable energy sources.

“Consequently, the use of Electrical Energy Storage (EES) is viewed as one potential way to support integration of variable RES ( Luo et al., 2015 ).”

• cites Luo et al., 2015 sourceSupported

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Simulation results gave ideally a round trip efficiency of 45% with some assumptions for a LAES providing daily air conditioning of an existing office building in Singapore.

“Results of simulation gave ideally a round trip efficiency of 45% with some assumptions.”

• cites Tafone et al. (2017) sourceSupported

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The cold recovered from evaporation could either be recycled in the liquefaction cycle or used to supply a refrigerated warehouse or food freezers.

“The cold recovered from the evaporation could either be recycled in the liquefaction cycle or used to supply refrigerated warehouse or food freezers.”

• cites Negro et al., 2018 sourceSupported

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Sciacovelli focused on integrating packed bed storage in a dynamic RTE analysis and on the impact of this component on overall system performance.

“The author focused on the integration of the packed bed storage in a dynamic RTE analysis and the impact of this component on the system overall performances.”

• cites Sciacovelli et al. (2017) sourceSupported

May combine two claims.

Almost all recent studies on LAES obtained approximate results of exergy efficiency and the round trip efficiency varies in the range of 43-50%.

“Almost all recent studies ( Ameel et al., 2013 ;Guizzi et al., 2015 ;Hamdy et al., 2017 ;Sciacovelli et al., 2017 ) on the subject of LAES obtained approximate results of exergy efficiency and the round trip efficiency varies at a range of [43-50%].”

• cites Ameel et al., 2013 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Guizzi et al., 2015 sourceCould not verify

  The indexed passages provide repository metadata and PDF listings, not the paper’s analysis or results (Abstract and “01 - Articolo su rivista”; no page numbers). Searches for exergy efficiency and a 43–50% round-trip efficiency range returned no substantive passage, so the available copy cannot verify the attributed figures. (LLM, conf=0.72)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites Hamdy et al., 2017 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Sciacovelli et al. (2017) carried out a typical LAES system configuration based on super-heating process recovery.

“Sciacovelli et al. (2017) has carried out a typical configuration of the LAES system based on super-heating process recovery.”

• cites Sciacovelli et al. (2017) sourceCould not verify

  The available indexed passages identify the paper as a study of LAES with packed-bed cold thermal storage, but they do not describe its system configuration. Searches for super-heating recovery and the claimed typical configuration returned only bibliographic material, so our copy does not establish that specific attribution. (LLM, conf=0.72)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Sensible heat is stored in a diathermic oil that acts as both heat transfer and storage medium.

“Sensible heat is stored in a diathermic oil that acts both as heat transfer and storage medium.”

• cites Sciacovelli et al. (2017) sourceCould not verify

  The available copy contains bibliographic information and keywords, including “Sensible storage” (Abstract/metadata; no page given), but no passage describing diathermic oil. Searches for “diathermic oil heat transfer storage medium” and “sensible heat hot thermal energy storage oil” found no passage addressing whether oil serves as both the heat-transfer and storage medium. (LLM, conf=0.77)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

The efficiency of the cold energy recovery sub-system can reach 88%.

“As main results of the study conducted by Negro et al. (2018) , the efficiency of the cold energy recovery sub-system can reach the value of 88%: « this will constitute a key technological enabler for any LAES technology to be commercially viable in the future ».”

• cites Negro et al. (2018) sourceSupported

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Sciacovelli's proposed LAES system includes a modified Claude cycle with multiple expansion stages and a JT valve.

“The proposed system shown in Fig. 7 includes a modified Claude cycle which includes multiple expansion stages and a JT valve.”

• cites Sciacovelli et al. (2017) sourceCould not verify

  The available passages identify Sciacovelli et al.’s 2017 LAES paper but do not describe the proposed system’s cycle or components. Searches for a modified Claude cycle, multiple expansion stages, and a JT valve found no relevant passage in our copy, so the attribution cannot be verified. (LLM, conf=0.70)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

May combine two claims.

Theoretical RTE values are generally higher than 70%, while those of super-heating are limited to 40 to 50%.

“Values of theoretical RTE are generally higher than 70%, while those of super-heating are limited 40 to 50%.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Recovery methods with combustion are proven to be more efficient in terms of RTE than with superheating.

“In CEEM section (3.2), recovery methods with combustion are proven to be more efficient in terms of RTE than with superheating.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Due to its instant availability and free use, air has the ultimate potential as a cryogen for an energy storing system.

“Finally, due to its instant availability and free use, air has the ultimate potential to the energy storing system as a cryogen.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The maximum safe oxygen concentration in a confined space is 23.5% by volume.

“In their report ( EIGA, 2016 ), the European Industrial Glasses Association claims that the maximum safe oxygen concentration in a confined space is 23.5% by volume.”

• cites EIGA, 2016Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The Linde-Hampson liquefier is based on the Joule Thomson effect taking place in any throttling valve.

“The Linde-Hampson (LH) liquefier is based on the Joule Thomson (JT) effect taking place in any throttling valve ( Venkatarathnam, 2008 ).”

• cites Venkatarathnam, 2008 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Liquid hydrogen has the highest exergy density, up to 11,912 kJ/kg.

“For example, calculation shows that liquid hydrogen has the highest exergy density using Eq. ( 1) , up to 11, 912 kJ/kg.”

• cites Li et al., 2010aNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Few air treatment operations are necessary before energy storage processing compared to hydrogen or nitrogen extraction.

“Furthermore, few air treatments operations are necessary before energy storage processing compared to hydrogen or nitrogen extraction for example.”

May combine two claims.

The main drawbacks of pumped hydro storage and compressed air energy storage are dependence on geographical location, large land footprint and environmental concerns.

“So, the main drawbacks of these technologies are the dependence on geographical location and the large land footprint and therefore environmental concerns ( ENEA Consulting, 2012 ;IEC, 2011 ;IRENA, 2017 ).”

• cites ENEA Consulting, 2012Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites IEC, 2011Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites IRENA, 2017Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Near-isentropic expansion makes the system potentially more efficient and additional work can be produced by the expansion device improving the overall efficiency.

“According to Sciever (2012) , the near-isentropic expansion makes the system potentially more efficient and additional work can be produced by the expansion device improving the overall efficiency.”

• cites Sciever, 2012Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Despite the low exergy efficiency of Linde Hampson, many industrials refer to this system to produce liquid air, as many patents for LAES systems were based on the LH liquefier.

“Despite the low values of exergy efficiency of Linde Hampson, many industrials refer to this system to produce liquid air, as in many patents LAES systems were based on the LH liquefier ( Gatti et al., 2011 ;Sinatov and Afremov, 2015 ;Stiller et al., 2016 ;Vandor, 2011 ).”

• cites Gatti et al., 2011Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Sinatov and Afremov, 2015Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Stiller et al., 2016Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

In the literature, mainly three major cycles were studied for the liquefaction of cryogens: Linde Hampson cycle, Solvay cycle and Claude cycle.

“In the literature, mainly 3 major cycles were studied for the liquefaction of cryogens, Linde Hampson cycle, Solvay cycle and Claude cycle ( Abdo et al., 2015 ;Ameel et al., 2013 ;Atrey, 1998 ;Chang, 2015 ;D'Arsonval, 1898 ;Guizzi et al., 2015 ;Hamdy et al., 2017 ;Li, 2011 ;Sciacovelli et al., 2017 ;Venkatarathnam, 2008 ).”

• cites Abdo et al., 2015 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Ameel et al., 2013 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Atrey, 1998 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The efficiency of the JT liquefaction cycle is 11% and is described as poor.

“Petit (1995) referred to the efficiency of 11% and describes the efficiency of JT liquefaction cycle as “poor”.”

• cites Petit, 1995 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The chemical exergy of liquid methane is 48 times higher than its thermo-physical exergy.

“Cryogens can also embody chemical exergy, for example the chemical exergy of liquid methane is 48 times higher than its thermo-physical exergy, on the other hand liquid nitrogen does not have any chemical exergy and all exergy is in the thermo-mechanical exergy potential Li et al. (2010a) .”

• cites Li et al., 2010aNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The Solvay liquefier increases liquid yield considerably.

“The liquid yield increases considerably and this cycle is known as the Solvay liquefier.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

CES technology is at pre-commercial stage evaluated with Technology Readiness Level at maximum nine.

“The CES technology is at pre-commercial stage evaluated with Technology Readiness Level (TRL) at maximum nine ( Hamdy et al., 2019 ).”

• cites Hamdy et al., 2019 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Liquid air can contain 50% nitrogen and 50% oxygen in some instances.

“Liquid air can even contain 50% of nitrogen and 50% of oxygen ( CLCF, 2013 ) in some instances.”

• cites CLCF, 2013Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

With the extended version of the Claude cycle, more cold is provided within the heat exchanger, hence more liquid is produced and the liquefier efficiency can be enhanced.

“With this extended version of Claude cycle, more cold is provided within the heat exchanger, henceforth more liquid is produced and so the liquefier efficiency can be enhanced.”

May combine two claims.

LAES needs further development and is currently at industrial demonstration level.

“On the other hand, LAES needs further development and is currently at industrial demonstration level.”

May combine two claims.

Liquid nitrogen does not have any chemical exergy and all its exergy is in the thermo-mechanical exergy potential.

“Cryogens can also embody chemical exergy, for example the chemical exergy of liquid methane is 48 times higher than its thermo-physical exergy, on the other hand liquid nitrogen does not have any chemical exergy and all exergy is in the thermo-mechanical exergy potential Li et al. (2010a) .”

• cites Li et al., 2010aNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Cryogens can be an efficient energy carrier and storage media.

“Li (2011) made a thermodynamic assessment of the use of cryogen as a working fluid in an energy storage system and concluded that cryogens can be an efficient energy carrier and storage media.”

• cites Li, 2011Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The idea of cryogenic energy storage was first proposed by E.M Smith at the University of New Castle in 1977.

“The idea of cryogenic energy storage was firstly proposed by E.M Smith, at university of New Castle in 1977 ( Smith, 1977 ), and tested by Mitsubishi in 1998 ( Kishimoto et al., 1998 ;Sciacovelli et al., 2017 ) using liquid air as cryogen.”

• cites Smith, 1977 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The Linde Hampson principle has been regarded for a long time as a potential liquefier for industrial application and it is always the case nowadays mainly due to the cost benefit criterion.

“This means that the Linde Hampson principle has been regarded for a long time as potential liquefier for industrial application and it is always the case nowadays mainly due to the cost benefit criterion.”

May combine two claims.

Commercial companies got involved in LAES development beginning with Mitsubishi and Hitachi at the end of the nineties and more recently Highview Power Ltd.

“Consequently, some commercial companies got involved in the development of this technology beginning with Mitsubishi and Hitachi ( Kishimoto et al., 1998 ;Wakana et al., 2005 ) at the end of the nineties and more recently Highview Power Ltd.”

• cites Kishimoto et al., 1998Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Wakana et al., 2005Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

In particular conditions, Li (2011) obtained an optimal round trip efficiency of 48% using a throttling valve, while this value increased to about 82% by using a Cryoturbine.

“For example, in particular conditions, Li (2011) obtained an optimal round trip efficiency of 48% using throttling valve while, this value increased to about 82% by using a Cryoturbine.”

• cites Li, 2011Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Thermo-mechanical exergy of liquid cryogens can be extracted after evaporation through turbines, while the remaining thermal exergy in the form of high-grade cold can be recovered through heat exchangers and storage medium.

“Thermo-mechanical exergy of liquid cryogens can be extracted after evaporation through turbines, while the remaining thermal exergy, in form of high-grade cold, can be recovered through heat exchangers and storage medium.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Simulation results show that a solar-cryogen hybrid power system delivers power 30% greater than the sum of the power outputs of each system individually.

“Results of simulation in this study show that the system delivers power 30% greater than the sum of the power outputs of each system individually.”

• cites Li et al. (2012)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

CEEM and liquefaction system can be completely separated or thermally linked in the case of CES.

“CEEM and liquefaction system can be completely separated or thermally linked in the case of CES.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

There was no full-scale pilot plant demonstrator for the Hitachi system.

“However there was no full scale pilot plant demonstrator.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Carbon capture can be done by use of cryogenic cold energy.

“This can be done by use of cryogenic cold energy so as in Li et al. (2011) .”

• cites Li et al. (2011)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The author calculated the thermal efficiency up to 77% as an efficiency of the generation cycle.

“The author calculated the thermal efficiency up to 77% (Eq.( 5)) as an efficiency of the generation cycle.”

• cites Kishimoto et al., 1998Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Combustion still rejects toxic particles such as CO, NO and O3, which require additional post-treatment processes and could lead to more complexity and expensiveness of the system.

“Nevertheless, combustion still rejects many others toxic particles like CO or NO, O 3 , etc. which require additional combustion post treatment processes and could lead to more complexity and expensiveness of the system.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Mitsubishi's generator is a combination of super-heating, combustion and direct expansion method with some modification.

“The generator is a combination of super-heating, combustion and direct expansion method with some modification, as showed by Fig 6 .”

• cites Kishimoto et al., 1998Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Cryogenic Carbon Capture is a viable approach to achieve the target CO2 emission level.

“Cryogenic Carbon Capture (CCC) is a viable approach to achieve the target of CO 2 emission level ( Safdarnejad et al., 2016 ).”

• cites Safdarnejad et al., 2016 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Carbon capture is a frequently proposed solution.

“Carbon capture is a frequent proposed solution ( Conlon, 2016 ).”

• cites Conlon, 2016Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

To further increase the efficiency of LA discharge, waste heat from exhaust gas is recovered to superheat gaseous nitrogen at the turbine entrance.

“To further increase the efficiency of the LA discharge, waste heat from the exhaust gas is recovered to superheat the gaseous nitrogen at the turbine entrance ( Li et al., 2013 ).”

• cites Li et al., 2013Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

A self-developed cold storage was used for full integration of liquefaction and energy generation units.

“A self-developed cold storage ( Morgan and Dearman, 2013 ) was used for the full integration of liquefaction and energy generation units.”

• cites Morgan and Dearman, 2013Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The R&D activities were conducted by the Japanese company Hitachi, Ltd.

“The R&D activities were conducted by the Japanese company Hitachi, Ltd.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S1 (asserted), S3 (load-bearing).

The round trip efficiency of the VPS cycle at a commercial scale is claimed to be greater than 95%.

“In a commercial document of the company that manufactures the system ( Liebowitz et al., 2013 ) the round trip efficiency of the VPS cycle at a commercial scale is claimed to be greater than 95%.”

• cites Liebowitz et al., 2013Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Dearman vehicle engine cannot be considered as a direct application of electric energy storage through cryogenic energy conversion, but in some aspects it could be considered as a CEEM.

“Dearman vehicle engine cannot be considered as a direct application of the electric energy storage through cryogenic energy conversion, but in some aspects, it could also be considered as a CEEM.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The Wakana et al. design included a cold storage unit conceived in a specifically designed regenerator.

“As previously described, this design included a form of cold storage unit which is conceived in specifically designed regenerator.”

• cites Wakana et al. (2005)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The round trip efficiency of a CES system integrated with a nuclear power plant could be higher than 70%.

“The round trip efficiency of this system could be higher than 70%.”

• cites Li et al. (2014)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The idea of using stored cold energy in refrigerated warehouses was first introduced by Fikiin et al. (2017).

“This idea was first introduced by Fikiin et al. (2017) .”

• cites Fikiin et al. (2017) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

According to the author, the poor value of 8% for the only fully built LAES demonstrator is due to the small size of the plant.

“According to the author, this poor value is due to the small size of the plant.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The only fully built LAES demonstrator has an RTE of 8% compared to a theoretical 49%.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Initial research activities on energy storage and recovery via cryogens began with simplified systems using independent liquefaction/recovery subsystems.

“As described in this paper, initial research activities on energy storage and recovery via cryogens had begun with simplified systems using independent liquefaction/recovery subsystems.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Four basic methods for Cryogenic Energy Extraction Methods are mentioned in the literature.

“In general, four basic methods for Cryogenic Energy Extraction Methods (CEEMs) are mentioned in literature ( Hamdy et al., 2017 ;Li et al., 2010a ) ( Fig 4 ).”

• cites Hamdy et al., 2017 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Li et al., 2010aNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The overall efficiency of the proposed system was claimed to reach 70%.

“The overall efficiency of the proposed system was claimed to reach 70%.”

• cites Li et al. (2013)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Integrating the LAES system would enable demand-side energy management and supply of cooling to refrigerated warehouses at the same time.

“Integrating the LAES system would enable demand-side energy management and supply of cooling to refrigerated warehouses at the same time.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

The advantage of this cycle would be that compression would be less energy intensive because the working fluid is at a lower absolute inlet temperature.

“The advantage of this cycle would be that the compression would be less energy intensive since the working fluid is at a lower absolute inlet temperature.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The Highview plant is now in operation and is providing power for around 200,000 homes during a day.

“The plant is now in operation and it is providing power for around 20 0,0 0 0 homes during a day ( Highviewpower, 2019 ).”

• cites Highviewpower, 2019Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

The authors' analysis of this configuration yielded the highest power output and the best round trip efficiency (68%).

“The authors' analysis of this configuration yielded the highest power output and the best round trip efficiency (68%).”

• cites Antonelli et al. (2017) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

The only reported performance indicator for the first prototype was the efficiency of the LA discharge system, which could reach 77%, without taking into account the energy consumed by the air liquefaction plant and accounting only for the chemical energy of the fuel burnt in the combustor.

“The only reported performance indicator was the efficiency of the LA discharge system which could reach 77%, without taking into account the energy consumed by the air liquefaction plant, but only accounting for the chemical energy of the fuel burnt in the combustor.”

• cites Kishimoto et al., 1998Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

The cycle that may replace Linde Hampson because of low complexity and enhanced efficiency is Solvay.

“The cycle that may replace Linde Hampson because of low complexity and enhanced efficiency is Solvay.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Aside from capturing and storing cold exergy for the liquefaction process, stored cold energy might also be used in refrigerated warehouses or food/pharmaceutical plants.

“Aside from capturing and storing the cold exergy of the released liquid air for the liquefaction process, the stored cold energy might also be used in refrigerated warehouses or food/pharmaceutical plants.”

May combine two claims.

Replacement of the JT valve by a liquid turbine assures better efficiency with minimum investment.

“The replacement of JT valve by a Liquid turbine assures better efficiency with minimum investment.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

By employing RES to liquefy and store cryogens, CryoHub balances the power grid while meeting the cooling demand of a refrigerated food warehouse and recovering waste heat from its equipment and components.

“By employing RES to liquefy and store cryogens, CryoHub balances the power grid, while meeting the cooling demand of a refrigerated food warehouse and recovering the waste heat from its equipment and components.”

• cites CryoHub, 2019Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The first suggestion was to include an Organic Rankine Cycle where cryogenic temperatures of released liquid air could be used as the lower temperature sink of the ORC.

“The first suggestion was to include an Organic Rankine Cycle (ORC) where cryogenic temperatures of released liquid air could be used as the lower temperature sink of the ORC.”

• cites Antonelli et al. (2017) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

A second proposition consisted of a combustion-based cycle where air cooled by cryogen entered the compressor.

“A second proposition consisted of a combustion based cycle, where air cooled by cryogen entered the compressor.”

• cites Antonelli et al. (2017) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

A 100MW/600MWh 'best built' configuration was proposed and a round trip efficiency of 60% was claimed as achievable with current technology.

“A 10 0MW/60 0 MWh”

• cites Morgan et al., 2014Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

One of the most important features of cryogenic energy storage is that it can generate both mechanical/electrical energy and cold energy at the same time by the regasification process.

“As said in the beginning of this paragraph, one of the most important features of the cryogenic energy storage is that it can generate both mechanical/electrical energy and cold energy at the same time by the regasification process.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Two major groups of LAES are distinguished in literature: independent subsystems and thermally linked subsystems.

“Therefore, two major groups of LAES are distinguished in literature: “independent subsystems” and “thermally linked subsystems”.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

LAES technology needs an important investment regarding the size of machinery required, including number of compressors and turbines and engineering/conception study price.

“LAES technology needs an important investment regarding the size of machinery required (number of compressors and turbines and engineering/conception study price).”

May combine two claims.

High grade hot and cold storage and recycle is included in almost all recent studies related to cryogenic energy storage system for electrical storage applications, where mainly a super-heating based cycle is used for the generation process.

“High grade hot and cold storage and recycle is included in almost all recent studies related to cryogenic energy storage system for electrical storage applications ( Abdo et al., 2015 ;Ameel et al., 2013 ;Chino and Araki, 20 0 0 ;Li, 2011 ;Li et al., 2014 ;Morgan et al., 2015 ;Sciacovelli et al., 2017 ) where mainly a super-heating based cycle is used for the generation process.”

• cites Abdo et al., 2015 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Ameel et al., 2013 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Chino and Araki, 20 0 0Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Depending on the industrial site where the CES is implemented, availability of a waste heat source is not certain, and therefore the RTE changes consequently.

“Depending on the industrial site where the CES is implemented, availability of waste heat source is not certain, and therefore, the of the RTE changes consequently.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

In Li et al. (2013), air would be separated into liquid oxygen for oxy-fuel combustion of gas turbines and liquid nitrogen as the working fluid and medium of CO2 removal.

“In the latter study by Li et al. (2013) , the air would be separated into liquid oxygen (for the oxy-fuel combustion of the gas turbines), and liquid nitrogen (the working fluid in the circuit and the medium of CO 2 removal).”

• cites Li et al. (2013)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The process separates solid CO2 in the form of dry ice.

“The process then, separates solid CO 2 in the form of dry ice ( Li et al., 2013 ).”

• cites Li et al., 2013Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Oxy-fuel combustion with CO2 capture has been investigated by companies like Air Liquide and Alstom in the case of coal-fired power plants.

“Oxy-fuel combustion with CO2 capture has been investigated by companies like Air Liquide ( Châtel-Pélage et al., 2003 ) and Alstom ( Nsakala et al., 2001 ) in the case of coal-fired power plant.”

• cites Châtel-Pélage et al., 2003Not checked — no full text of the source
• cites Nsakala et al., 2001Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Many authors confirmed that integration between liquefaction and energy recovery units through cold and hot storage considerably enhances system performance.

“Many authors confirmed that the integration between liquefaction and energy recovery units through cold and hot storage considerably enhances the system performance.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Cryogenic energy can also be used for CO2 carbon capture and sequestration or more recently for turning CO2 into coal.

“The cryogenic energy can also be used for CO 2 carbon capture and for sequestration or more recently for turning it into coal ( Cockburn, 2019 ).”

• cites Cockburn, 2019Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

The possibility to increase energy recovery and energy efficiency while respecting environmental issues in renewable energy integration makes CES a potential method for large-scale EES.

“The possibility to increase the energy recovery and so the energy efficiency of the system, and to respect the environmental issues in the context of renewable energy integration, makes of the CES a potential method for the large scale EES.”

May combine two claims.

Studies have shown attractive results of thermodynamic efficiency as well as possibilities of cogeneration of cold energy and/or hot energy depending on the industrial site needs where the plant is implemented.

“Studies have shown attractive results of thermodynamic efficiency as well as possibilities of cogeneration of cold energy or/and hot energy depending on the industrial site needs where the plant is implemented.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Linde-Hampson, Claude and Solvay cycles were mentioned in previous works to be the most appropriate for cryogen liquefaction.

“Linde-Hampson, Claude and Solvay cycles were mentioned in previous works to be the most appropriate for cryogen liquefaction.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The lack of experimental validation is due to huge investment related to the project, even at a demonstration level.

“This is due to huge investment related to the project, even at a demonstration level.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

One advantage of LAES is its energy storage density, and another is its independence from location constraints such as gravitational potential for PHS or underground caves for CAES.

“One advantage of this technology is the energy storage density and, secondly, its independence from location constraints like the presence of a gravitational potential (PHS) or underground caves (CAES).”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

More and more integration possibilities can emerge from LAES in the form of by-products of liquid air production/use.

“More and more integration possibilities can emerge from LAES in the form of by-products of liquid air production/use.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Potential round-trip efficiency has been claimed to be more than 80% when using combustion for the LA discharge cycle.

“Potential round-trip efficiency has been claimed to be more than 80% when using combustion for LA discharge cycle.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

A difficulty of using liquid air as cryogen is that particular attention should be given to stratification and oxygen enrichment during storage.

“A difficulty of using liquid air used as cryogen is that a particular attention should be given to the problem of stratification and oxygen enrichment during storage.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

A part of liquefied oxygen or nitrogen can be sold on the market or provided for local use as sub-products without diverting from the main purpose of storing energy.

“A part of liquefied oxygen or nitrogen can be sold on the market or provided for local use as sub-products, without diverting from the main purpose of storing energy.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

The combustion process has an undeniably negative impact on the environment, which conflicts with the environmentally friendly characteristic of LAES as a solution for the green energy transition.

“Combustion process has undeniably negative impact on the environment and this goes against the environmentally friendly characteristic of LAES as a solution for the green energy worldly transition.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Super-heating and combustion methods combined with direct expansion are the most popular energy recovery methods in studies related to CES or LAES.

“Super-heating and combustion methods combined to direct expansion are the most popular energy recovery methods in studies related to CES or LAES.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Carbon capture and storage using liquid nitrogen is one of many options already investigated by some authors.

“As discussed previously, carbon capture and storage using liquid nitrogen is one of many options already investigated by some authors.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

LAES is a novel EES technology that could respond to grid-scale requirements.

“LAES, as a particular sub-set of LAES, is a novel EES technology that could respond to grid-scale requirements.”