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Etiology of Type 1 Diabetes
Open accessAbstract
Recent genetic mapping and gene-phenotype studies have revealed the genetic architecture of type 1 diabetes. At least ten genes so far can be singled out as strong causal candidates. The known functions of these genes indicate the primary etiological pathways of this disease, including HLA class II and I molecules binding to preproinsulin peptides and T cell receptors, T and B cell activation, innate pathogen-viral responses, chemokine and cytokine signaling, and T regulatory and antigen-presenting cell functions. This review considers research in the field of type 1 diabetes toward identifying disease mechanisms using genetic approaches. The expression and functions of these pathways, and, therefore, disease susceptibility, will be influenced by epigenetic and environmental factors. Certain inherited immune phenotypes will be early precursors of type 1 diabetes and could be useful in future clinical trials.
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“Type 1 diabetes is generally thought to be precipitated by an immune-associated, if not directly immune-mediated, destruction of insulin-producing pancreatic β cells.1,2”
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Koeleman, B. P. C., Lie, B. A., Undlien, D. E., Dudbridge, F., Thorsby, E., Vries, D. R., Cucca, F., Roep, B. O., Giphart, M. J., & Todd, J. A. (2004) · Genes and Immunity · doi:10.1038/sj.gene.6364106 · Cited by 108
Self-citationDevendra, D., & Eisenbarth, G. S. (2004) · Clinical Immunology · doi:10.1016/j.clim.2004.01.008 · Cited by 101
Wang, Y., Cella, M., Gilfillan, S., & Colonna, M. (2010) · The Journal of Immunology · doi:10.4049/jimmunol.0903201 · Cited by 93
Lower, K. M., Hughes, J. R., De Gobbi, M., Henderson, S., Viprakasit, V., Fisher, C., Goriely, A., Ayyub, H., Sloane-Stanley, J., Vernimmen, D., et al. (2009) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.0909331106 · Cited by 92
Association ofCTLA4 polymorphism with regulatory T cell frequency
Atabani, S. F., Thio, C. L., Divanovic, S., Trompette, A., Belkaid, Y., Thomas, D. L., & Karp, C. L. (2005) · European Journal of Immunology · doi:10.1002/eji.200526168 · Cited by 92
Fine-Scale Variation and Genetic Determinants of Alternative Splicing across Individuals
Coulombe‐Huntington, J., Lam, K. C. L., Dias, C., & Majewski, J. (2009) · PLoS Genetics · doi:10.1371/journal.pgen.1000766 · Cited by 91
The role of paracetamol in the pathogenesis of asthma
Farquhar, H., Stewart, A. J., Mitchell, E. A., Crane, J., Eyers, S., Weatherall, M., & Beasley, R. W. (2009) · Clinical & Experimental Allergy · doi:10.1111/j.1365-2222.2009.03378.x · Cited by 90
Effects of the multiple sclerosis associated −330 promoter polymorphism in IL2 allelic expression
Matesanz, F., Fedetz, M., Leyva, L., Delgado, C., Fernández, Ó., & Alcina, A. (2004) · Journal of Neuroimmunology · doi:10.1016/j.jneuroim.2003.12.001 · Cited by 86
Renalase, a novel soluble FAD-dependent protein, is synthesized in the brain and peripheral nerves
Hennebry, S. C., Eikelis, N., Socratous, F., Désir, G. V., Lambert, G. W., & Schlaich, M. P. (2010) · Molecular Psychiatry · doi:10.1038/mp.2009.74 · Cited by 86
A Protective Role of the Environment in the Development of Type 1 Diabetes?
Todd, J. A. (1991) · Diabetic Medicine · doi:10.1111/j.1464-5491.1991.tb01528.x · Cited by 82
Self-citationEpigenetics: deciphering how environmental factors may modify autoimmune type 1 diabetes
MacFarlane, A. J., Strom, A., & Scott, F. W. (2009) · Mammalian Genome · doi:10.1007/s00335-009-9213-6 · Cited by 78
No association of multiple type 2 diabetes loci with type 1 diabetes
Raj, S. M., Howson, J. M. M., Walker, N. M., Cooper, J. D., Smyth, D. J., Field, S. F., Stevens, H. E., & Todd, J. A. (2009) · Diabetologia · doi:10.1007/s00125-009-1391-y · Cited by 78
Self-citationLoss of parity between IL-2 and IL-21 in the NOD Idd3 locus
McGuire, H. M., Vogelzang, A., Hill, N. J., Flodström‐Tullberg, M., Sprent, J., & King, C. (2009) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.0903561106 · Cited by 66
Genetic variation in the IL7RA/IL7 pathway increases multiple sclerosis susceptibility
Zuvich, R. L., McCauley, J. L., Oksenberg, J. R., Sawcer, S. J., Jager, P. L. D., Aubin, C., Cross, A. H., Piccio, L. M., Aggarwal, N. T., Evans, D. A., et al. (2010) · Human Genetics · doi:10.1007/s00439-010-0789-4 · Cited by 65
Surrogate end points in the design of immunotherapy trials: emerging lessons from type 1 diabetes
Roep, B. O., & Peakman, M. (2010) · Nature reviews. Immunology · doi:10.1038/nri2705 · Cited by 63
Association of the AFF3 gene and IL2/IL21 gene region with juvenile idiopathic arthritis
Hinks, A., Eyre, S., Ke, X., Barton, A. C., Martin, P., Flynn, E., Packham, J., Worthington, J., & Thomson, W. (2010) · Genes and Immunity · doi:10.1038/gene.2009.105 · Cited by 62
von Herrath, M. (2009) · Nature · doi:10.1038/459518a · Cited by 59
Hoe, E., McKay, F. C., Schibeci, S. D., Gandhi, K. S., Heard, R. N., Stewart, G. J., & Booth, D. R. (2010) · The Journal of Immunology · doi:10.4049/jimmunol.0902900 · Cited by 55
Verhagen, J., Gabryšová, L., Minaee, S., Sabatos, C. A., Anderson, G., Sharpe, A. H., & Wraith, D. C. (2009) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.0803186106 · Cited by 50
Long, S. A., Walker, M., Rieck, M., James, E. A., Kwok, W. W., Sanda, S., Pihoker, C., Greenbaum, C. J., Nepom, G. T., & Buckner, J. H. (2009) · European Journal of Immunology · doi:10.1002/eji.200838819 · Cited by 47
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Dai, Y. D., Marrero, I. G., Gros, P., Zaghouani, H., Wicker, L. S., & Sercarz, E. E. (2009) · Diabetes · doi:10.2337/db07-1608 · Cited by 41
Cooke, A. (2008) · Blood Cells Molecules and Diseases · doi:10.1016/j.bcmd.2008.10.004 · Cited by 35
Rainbow, D. B., Esposito, L., Howlett, S., Hunter, K. M. D., Todd, J. A., Peterson, L. B., & Wicker, L. S. (2008) · Biochemical Society Transactions · doi:10.1042/bst0360312 · Cited by 29
Self-citationChapter 2 CD3 Antibodies as Unique Tools to Restore Self-Tolerance in Established Autoimmunity
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Regulation of IL-2 expression by transcription factor BACH2 in umbilical cord blood CD4+ T cells
Lesniewski, M. L., Haviernik, P., Weitzel, R. P., Kadereit, S., Kozik, M. M., Fanning, L. R., Yang, Y., Hegerfeldt, Y., Finney, M. R., Ratajczak, M. Z., et al. (2008) · Leukemia · doi:10.1038/leu.2008.234 · Cited by 15
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Mellanby, R. J., Phillips, J. M., Parish, N. M., & Cooke, A. (2008) · Autoimmunity · doi:10.1080/08916930801991021 · Cited by 11
Arai, T., Moriyama, H., Shimizu, M., Sasaki, H., Kishi, M., Okumachi, Y., Yasuda, H., Hara, K., Yokono, K., & Nagata, M. (2010) · Clinical Immunology · doi:10.1016/j.clim.2010.02.016 · Cited by 9
Translating Mucosal Antigen based Prevention of Autoimmune Diabetes to Human
Bonifacio, E. E., Ziegler, A. G., Achenbach, P., Barker, J. M., & Eisenbarth, G. S. (2008) · Novartis Foundation symposium · doi:10.1002/9780470697405.ch17 · Cited by 4
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Atkinson, M. A., Eisenbarth, G. S., & Michels, A. W. (2014) · The Lancet · doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(13)60591-7 · Cited by 2,931
Diabetes mellitus: The epidemic of the century
Kharroubi, A. (2015) · World Journal of Diabetes · doi:10.4239/wjd.v6.i6.850 · Cited by 1,352
Variation in the Human Immune System Is Largely Driven by Non-Heritable Influences
Brodin, P., Jojic, V., Gao, T., Bhattacharya, S., Angel, C. J. L., Furman, D., Shen-Orr, S., Dekker, C. L., Swan, G. E., Butte, A. J., et al. (2015) · Cell · doi:10.1016/j.cell.2014.12.020 · Cited by 1,065
Fasano, A. (2011) · Physiological Reviews · doi:10.1152/physrev.00003.2008 · Cited by 1,063
Signaling and Function of Interleukin-2 in T Lymphocytes
Ross, S. H., & Cantrell, D. A. (2018) · Annual Review of Immunology · doi:10.1146/annurev-immunol-042617-053352 · Cited by 1,025
Metadata
- Authors
- Todd, J. A.
- Affiliations
- University of Cambridge (GB)
- Corresponding author
- Todd, John A.
- ORCID
- Todd, John A.
- Venue
- Immunity
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2010-04
- Volume
- 32
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 457-467
- ISSN
- 1074-7613 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W1997112242
- Cited by
- 560
- References
- 120
- Citations by year
- 2026: 12 · 2025: 19 · 2024: 30 · 2023: 32 · 2022: 28 · 2021: 32 · 2020: 35 · 2019: 29 · 2018: 25 · 2017: 22 · 2016: 47 · 2015: 49 · 2014: 45 · 2013: 38 · 2012: 59
- FWCI
- 5.25
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Immunity (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- Wellcome Trust (061858)
- National Institute for Health and Care Research (NF-SI-0508-10275)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Genetics › Diabetes and associated disorders
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Genetics › Genetic Associations and Epidemiology
- Life Sciences › Immunology and Microbiology › Immunology › T-cell and B-cell Immunology
- Keywords
- type 1 diabetes, genetic etiology, HLA class II, HLA class I, T cell receptor, T cell activation, B cell activation, innate immune response, viral infection, chemokine signaling, cytokine signaling, regulatory T cells, antigen-presenting cells, epigenetic factors, environmental factors, disease susceptibility, gene mapping, genotype-phenotype correlation
- MeSH terms
- Animals, Diabetes Mellitus, Type 1, Gene Expression Regulation, Humans, Phenotype, Genetic Predisposition to Disease, Epigenesis, Genetic
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
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