Are there interactional differences between telephone and face-to-face psychological therapy? A systematic review of comparative studies

“The paper followed the PRISMA guidelines for reporting of systematic reviews and metaanalyses (Moher et al., 2015).”

“, 2014) considered patient and/or therapist ratings of therapeutic alliance across telephone and face-to-face therapy sessions, using versions of the Working Alliance Inventory (WAI; Horvath and Greenberg, 1989).”

“These various modes, sometimes referred to collectively as „telemental health‟ or „telepsychology‟ (e.g. American Psychological Association, 2013; Hilty et al., 2013; Langarizadeh at al., 2016), include telephone, videoconference, email, text message and web-based interventions, alongside the traditional face-to-face…”

“The method of Conversation Analysis (CA) offers a proven method for adding understanding to the interactional processes of clinical encounters (Drew et al., 2001; Heritage and Maynard, 2006; Heritage and Robinson, 2006; Perakyla et al., 2008; Robinson, 2003; Robinson and Heritage, 2006).”

“The method of Conversation Analysis (CA) offers a proven method for adding understanding to the interactional processes of clinical encounters (Drew et al., 2001; Heritage and Maynard, 2006; Heritage and Robinson, 2006; Perakyla et al., 2008; Robinson, 2003; Robinson and Heritage, 2006).”

“The method of Conversation Analysis (CA) offers a proven method for adding understanding to the interactional processes of clinical encounters (Drew et al., 2001; Heritage and Maynard, 2006; Heritage and Robinson, 2006; Perakyla et al., 2008; Robinson, 2003; Robinson and Heritage, 2006).”

“It could illuminate what alliance formation - and potentially the processes of alliance rupture and repair (Safran et al., 1990) - „look like‟ in practice, and where there might be scope to intervene in and influence this process through practitioner training.”

“…Disorder, and that similar clinical outcomes can be achieved via the telephone as are obtained in face-to-face intervention (Castro et al., 2020; Coughtrey and Pistrang, 2016; Furukawa et al., 2012; Hammond et al., 2012; Leach and Christensen, 2006; Mohr et al., 2008, 2012; Turner et al., 2014).”

“The method of Conversation Analysis (CA) offers a proven method for adding understanding to the interactional processes of clinical encounters (Drew et al., 2001; Heritage and Maynard, 2006; Heritage and Robinson, 2006; Perakyla et al., 2008; Robinson, 2003; Robinson and Heritage, 2006).”

“Participation: Two studies (Day and Schneider, 2002; Spizman, 2001) considered patients‟ degree of participation in the therapy session.”

“Some commentators frame the shorter duration of telephone therapy as an economic and resource efficiency for services (e.g. Hammond et al., 2012; Lovell et al., 2006; Stephenson et al., 2003), and suggest that this time saving should be embraced and if possible enhanced (Hammond et al.”

“…of therapeutic alliance reveal that, whilst eye contact is considered amongst the most important individual factors, non-verbal gestures and body language as a whole are rated as significantly less important than therapist validation of the patient‟s experience (Bedi, 2006; Bedi and Duff, 2014).”

“Alliance: Five studies (Fann et al., 2015; Himmelhoch et al., 2013; Mulligan et al., 2014; Reese et al., 2002; Stiles-Shields et al., 2014) considered patient and/or therapist ratings of therapeutic alliance across telephone and face-to-face therapy sessions, using versions of the Working Alliance Inventory (WAI; Horv…”

“Evidence from both trial and service settings suggests that telephone-delivered psychological therapy leads to symptom improvement for subthreshold depression, mild to moderate depression and anxiety, and Obsessive Compulsive Disorder, and that similar clinical outcomes can be achieved via the telephone as are obtaine…”

“Evidence from both trial and service settings suggests that telephone-delivered psychological therapy leads to symptom improvement for subthreshold depression, mild to moderate depression and anxiety, and Obsessive Compulsive Disorder, and that similar clinical outcomes can be achieved via the telephone as are obtaine…”

“At the same time, it is noted that the absence of visual co-presence can be helpful to some patients, through offering greater anonymity, reducing anxieties that may be aroused by visiting a clinic setting, and eliminating any material indications of (differential) social status (Anthony and Goss, 2003; Bakalar, 2013;…”

“, 2015; Mohr et al, 2008), Dialectal Behaviour Therapy (Ben-Porath, 2015; Koons, 2011; Oliveira and Rizvi, 2018) and psychoanalysis (Bakalar, 2013; Leffert, 2003; Scharff, 2012).”

“Evidence from both trial and service settings suggests that telephone-delivered psychological therapy leads to symptom improvement for subthreshold depression, mild to moderate depression and anxiety, and Obsessive Compulsive Disorder, and that similar clinical outcomes can be achieved via the telephone as are obtaine…”

“Evidence from both trial and service settings suggests that telephone-delivered psychological therapy leads to symptom improvement for subthreshold depression, mild to moderate depression and anxiety, and Obsessive Compulsive Disorder, and that similar clinical outcomes can be achieved via the telephone as are obtaine…”

“We were able to conduct a meta-analysis of data on duration from four studies (Bassilios et al., 2014; Brown, 1985; Fann et al., 2015; Hammond et al., 2012).”

“Evidence from both trial and service settings suggests that telephone-delivered psychological therapy leads to symptom improvement for subthreshold depression, mild to moderate depression and anxiety, and Obsessive Compulsive Disorder, and that similar clinical outcomes can be achieved via the telephone as are obtaine…”

“These reservations centre around the quality of therapeutic relationship that can be established over the telephone, and the ability to exercise professional skill and judgement in their interactions with patients in the absence of visual cues (e.g. Bee et al., 2016; Gellatly et al., 2017; Jones et al., 2013; Richards…”

“Alliance: Five studies (Fann et al., 2015; Himmelhoch et al., 2013; Mulligan et al., 2014; Reese et al., 2002; Stiles-Shields et al., 2014) considered patient and/or therapist ratings of therapeutic alliance across telephone and face-to-face therapy sessions, using versions of the Working Alliance Inventory (WAI; Horv…”

“The telephone has a long history in counselling and crisis intervention (Coman et al., 2001; Lester, 1977; Lester et al., 2012) and is utilised in specific treatment modalities such as Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (Haregu et al.”

“, 2015; Mohr et al, 2008), Dialectal Behaviour Therapy (Ben-Porath, 2015; Koons, 2011; Oliveira and Rizvi, 2018) and psychoanalysis (Bakalar, 2013; Leffert, 2003; Scharff, 2012).”

“At the same time, it is noted that the absence of visual co-presence can be helpful to some patients, through offering greater anonymity, reducing anxieties that may be aroused by visiting a clinic setting, and eliminating any material indications of (differential) social status (Anthony and Goss, 2003; Bakalar, 2013;…”

“We know that more nuanced forms of intervention are required to effect change in practitioner attitudes and behaviours, and that barriers to change lie not only at the individual or interpersonal level, but also at the systems level (Bee et al., 2016).”

“5 communication and interaction between patient and therapist, with consequences for understanding, empathy and alliance (e.g. Bennett, 2004; Miller, 1973).”

“CA is being widely applied to uncover the interactional/communicative practices used by medical professionals and patients/clients, and to identify those practices that are more effective than others (Ekberg et al., 2015; Heritage et al., 2007; Heritage et al., 2010; Jones et al., 2015).”

“Alliance: Five studies (Fann et al., 2015; Himmelhoch et al., 2013; Mulligan et al., 2014; Reese et al., 2002; Stiles-Shields et al., 2014) considered patient and/or therapist ratings of therapeutic alliance across telephone and face-to-face therapy sessions, using versions of the Working Alliance Inventory (WAI; Horv…”

“These reservations centre around the quality of therapeutic relationship that can be established over the telephone, and the ability to exercise professional skill and judgement in their interactions with patients in the absence of visual cues (e.g. Bee et al., 2016; Gellatly et al., 2017; Jones et al., 2013; Richards…”

“Likewise, over the telephone, silence from the patient may leave the therapist unsure of the „meaning‟ of that silence, or less able to judge when it might be appropriate to employ a „skilful silence‟ (Christogiorgos et al., 2010).”

“…et al., 2012) and is utilised in specific treatment modalities such as Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (Haregu et al., 2015; Mohr et al, 2008), Dialectal Behaviour Therapy (Ben-Porath, 2015; Koons, 2011; Oliveira and Rizvi, 2018) and psychoanalysis (Bakalar, 2013; Leffert, 2003; Scharff, 2012).”

“…et al., 2012) and is utilised in specific treatment modalities such as Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (Haregu et al., 2015; Mohr et al, 2008), Dialectal Behaviour Therapy (Ben-Porath, 2015; Koons, 2011; Oliveira and Rizvi, 2018) and psychoanalysis (Bakalar, 2013; Leffert, 2003; Scharff, 2012).”

“…et al., 2012) and is utilised in specific treatment modalities such as Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (Haregu et al., 2015; Mohr et al, 2008), Dialectal Behaviour Therapy (Ben-Porath, 2015; Koons, 2011; Oliveira and Rizvi, 2018) and psychoanalysis (Bakalar, 2013; Leffert, 2003; Scharff, 2012).”

“These seven studies consistently found that telephone sessions were shorter than those delivered face-to-face, with three (Fann et al., 2015; Hammond et al., 2012; Stephenson et al., 2003) reporting statistically significant differences between modes.”

“At the same time, it is noted that the absence of visual co-presence can be helpful to some patients, through offering greater anonymity, reducing anxieties that may be aroused by visiting a clinic setting, and eliminating any material indications of (differential) social status (Anthony and Goss, 2003; Bakalar, 2013;…”

“Empathy: Two studies (Antonioni, 1973; Dilley et al., 1971) used the Carkhuff scale for Assessment of Interpersonal Functioning (Carkhuff, 1969) to explore counsellor empathy in the context of a university counselling service.”

“Duration: Seven studies reported on the length of therapy sessions (Bassilios et al., 2014; Brown, 1985; Daniel, 1973; Fann et al., 2015; Hammond et al., 2012; Hinrichsen and Zwibelman, 1981; Stephenson et al., 2003).”

“Telephone-based Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (CBT) is also used to address a range of physical and co-morbid health conditions (e.g. Dobkin et al., 2011; Everitt et al., 2019; Mohr et al., 2000; Muller and Yardley, 2011”

“…that use videoconference tools or the telephone has also been well documented in depressive [80-83], anxiety [80,83-85], and psychotic disorders [86], with comparable effects for online group and individual therapy sessions [87,88], compared with conventional (offline) therapy sessions.”

“Psychological therapies and behaviour change interventions can already be delivered remotely and evidence suggests that remote delivery does not necessarily mean inferior delivery (e.g., Irvine et al. , 2020).”

“In studies with seniors and in mental health settings, audio-only phone visits were as effective as video in resolving urgent and nonemergent needs [90,91].”

“A recent review suggests that therapeutic alliance and process factors in telephone therapy tend to be similar to in-person psychotherapy (Irvine et al., 2020).”