The association between the social environment of childhood and adolescence and depression in young adulthood - A prospective cohort study
Open accessAbstract
BACKGROUND: Good social relationships with parents and peers protect children and adolescents from developing mental disorders in adulthood while several negative experiences increase the risk of depression in later life. METHODS: We used population-based cohort data from the Northern Finland Birth Cohort (NFBC) 1986. Participants (n = 6147), their teachers and parents reported factors associated with the social environment of children and adolescents. Diagnoses of depression of cohort members were derived from Finnish nationwide registers. We conducted regression analyses to assess which factors of the social environment of childhood and adolescence were associated with depression in young adulthood. RESULTS: Bullying victimization in adolescence was the strongest predictor of depression in young adulthood among girls (OR 2.23: 95% CI 1.47-3.39) and boys (OR 2.44: 95% CI 1.49-4.00). Loneliness and bullying behavior in childhood were associated with depression in boys only. Loneliness in adolescence (OR 1.63: 95% CI 1.30-2.04) was associated with depression among both genders. Spending with the family seemed to protect against the negative impact of bullying and loneliness. LIMITATIONS: We used single-item study questions to measure social relationships. These questions do not necessarily describe the phenomena as accurately as the measures validated for them. CONCLUSION: Problems in social relationships with peers in childhood and adolescence are associated with depression in young adulthood. Time spent with the family is emphasized in situations in which adolescents have problems in peer-relationships.
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There remains a gap in understanding the long-term effects of loneliness on mental health into adulthood.
“While previous research has established the link between loneliness and mental health problems [16–18], there remains a gap in understanding the long-term effects of loneliness on mental health into adulthood [19].”
From The prospective association of adolescent loneliness and low resilience with anxiety and depression in young adulthood: The HUNT study (2025) · cites this paper as [19]
Section 4.2 says there has been a lack of studies on childhood loneliness and depression in young adulthood, particularly regarding gender differences. That supports a gap in knowledge about a long-term association, but the cited passage concerns depression specifically, not mental health outcomes broadly. (LLM, conf=0.83)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredOur findings align with studies by Kehusmaa et al. and Xerxa et al., linking childhood and adolescent loneliness with anxiety and depression in young adulthood.
“Our findings align with studies by Kehusmaa et al. [29] and Xerxa et al. [30], linking childhood and adolescent loneliness with anxiety and depression in young adulthood.”
From The prospective association of adolescent loneliness and low resilience with anxiety and depression in young adulthood: The HUNT study (2025) · cites this paper as [29]
Section 4.2 reports that childhood loneliness was associated with depression in young adulthood only among boys, while adolescent loneliness was associated with depression in both genders. It does not report an association with anxiety in young adulthood; it mentions anxiety only as a possible mechanism that may increase depression risk. Page numbers were not provided in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.90)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
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Risk and Protective Factors for Depression during Adolescence
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- Authors
- Kehusmaa, J., Ruotsalainen, H., Männikkö, N., Alakokkare, A.-E., Niemelä, M., Jääskeläinen, E., & Miettunen, J.
- Affiliations
- Oulu University Hospital (FI)
- Oulu University of Applied Sciences (FI)
- Corresponding author
- Kehusmaa, Johanna
- ORCID
- Venue
- Journal of Affective Disorders
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2022-05
- Volume
- 305
- Pages
- 37-46
- ISSN
- 0165-0327 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W4214767966
- Cited by
- 30
- References
- 60
- Citations by year
- 2026: 6 · 2025: 8 · 2024: 8 · 2023: 6 · 2022: 2
- FWCI
- 5.49
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Journal of Affective Disorders (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- Juho Vainio Fundation (202100430)
- Yrjö Jahnssonin Säätiö
- National Institutes of Health (2000 G DF682, 50945)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional Development
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Bullying, Victimization, and Aggression
- Social Sciences › Health › Health disparities and outcomes
- Keywords
- bullying victimization, loneliness, peer relationships, family time, parent-adolescent relationships, sex differences, Northern Finland Birth Cohort 1986
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Adult, Child, Female, Humans, Longitudinal Studies, Male, Prospective Studies, Social Environment, Cohort Studies, Crime Victims, Young Adult, Bullying
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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