Stability in symptoms of anxiety and depression as a function of genotype and environment: a longitudinal twin study from ages 3 to 63 years
Open accessAbstract
Background.: The influence of genetic factors on major depressive disorder is lower than on other psychiatric disorders. Heritability estimates mainly derive from cross-sectional studies, and knowledge on the longitudinal aetiology of symptoms of anxiety and depression (SxAnxDep) across the lifespan is limited. We aimed to assess phenotypic, genetic and environmental stability in SxAnxDep between ages 3 and 63 years. Method.: We used a cohort-sequential design combining data from 49 524 twins followed from birth to age ⩾20 years, and from adolescence into adulthood. SxAnxDep were assessed repeatedly with a maximum of eight assessments over a 25-year period. Data were ordered in 30 age groups and analysed with longitudinal genetic models. Results.: Over age, there was a significant increase during adolescence in mean scores with sex differences (women>men) emerging. Heritability was high in childhood and decreased to 30–40% during adulthood. This decrease in heritability was due to an increase in environmental variance. Phenotypic stability was moderate in children (correlations across ages ~0.5) and high in adolescents ( r = 0.6), young adults ( r = 0.7), and adults ( r = 0.8). Longitudinal stability was mostly attributable to genetic factors. During childhood and adolescence there was also significant genetic innovation, which was absent in adults. Environmental effects contributed to short-term stability. Conclusions.: The substantial stability in SxAnxDep is mainly due to genetic effects. The importance of environmental effects increases with age and explains the relatively low heritability of depression in adults. The environmental effects are transient, but the contribution to stability increases with age.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
The text we found for this paper looks like another document, so the self-check wasn’t run.
Cites
Prevalence and development of psychiatric disorders in childhood and adolescence
Costello, E. J., Mustillo, S., Erkanli, A., Keeler, G., & Angold, A. (2003) · Archives of General Psychiatry · doi:10.1001/archpsyc.60.8.837 · Cited by 4,035 · cited 2× · see citing works
“During adolescence, there is a rise in the prevalence of anxious and depressive symptoms and diagnoses, especially in women (with the exception of separation anxiety disorder and specific phobia), and there is a marked continuity of symptoms into adulthood (Costello et al. 2003; Beesdo-Baum & Knappe, 2012).”
BackgroundGenetic Epidemiology of Major Depression: Review and Meta-Analysis
Sullivan, P. F., Neale, M. C., & Kendler, K. S. (2000) · American Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.157.10.1552 · Cited by 3,431 · see citing works
Self-citationThe social brain in adolescence
Blakemore, S.-J. (2008) · Nature Reviews Neuroscience · doi:10.1038/nrn2353 · Cited by 1,896 · see citing works
Manual for the ASEBA preschool forms and profiles
Achenbach, T. M., & Rescorla, L. A. (2000) · Cited by 1,678 · see citing works
Anxiety Disorders During Childhood and Adolescence: Origins and Treatment
Rapee, R. M., Schniering, C. A., & Hudson, J. L. (2009) · Annual Review of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev.clinpsy.032408.153628 · Cited by 821 · cited 4× · see citing works
“2012), but effects were small and waned from around 15% explained variance in childhood to zero in adolescence and adulthood (Rapee et al. 2009).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialA Swedish National Twin Study of Lifetime Major Depression
Kendler, K. S., Gatz, M., Gardner, C. O., & Pedersen, N. L. (2006) · American Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.163.1.109 · Cited by 794 · see citing works
Self-citationMarkon, K. E., Chmielewski, M., & Miller, C. J. (2011) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/a0023678 · Cited by 656 · see citing works
Prevalence and clinical course of depression: a review
Richards, D. (2011) · Clinical Psychology Review · doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2011.07.004 · Cited by 623 · see citing works
The continuing value of twin studies in the omics era
van Dongen, J., Slagboom, P., Draisma, H., Martin, N. G., & Boomsma, D. (2012) · Nature reviews genetics · doi:10.1038/nrg3243 · Cited by 398 · see citing works
Self-citationKENDLER, K. S., KARKOWSKI, L. M., & PRESCOTT, C. A. (1998) · The Journal of Nervous & Mental Disease · doi:10.1097/00005053-199811000-00001 · Cited by 380 · see citing works
Self-citationDevelopmental epidemiology of anxiety disorders
Beesdo-Baum, K., & Knappe, S. (2012) · Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America · doi:10.1016/j.chc.2012.05.001 · Cited by 330 · see citing works
Continuity and Change of Psychopathology From Childhood Into Adulthood: A 14-Year Follow-up Study
HOFSTRA, M. B., VAN der ENDE, J., & VERHULST, F. C. (2000) · Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry · doi:10.1097/00004583-200007000-00013 · Cited by 279 · see citing works
The case for a US prospective cohort study of genes and environment
Collins, F. S. (2004) · Nature · doi:10.1038/nature02628 · Cited by 228 · see citing works
Ferdinand, R. F., van der Ende, J., & Verhulst, F. C. (2004) · Journal of Abnormal Psychology · doi:10.1037/0021-843x.113.2.198 · Cited by 224 · see citing works
Ormel, J. (1993) · Archives of General Psychiatry · doi:10.1001/archpsyc.1993.01820220009001 · Cited by 216 · see citing works
Kendler, K. S., Gardner, C., & Lichtenstein, P. (2008) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s003329170800384x · Cited by 216 · see citing works
Self-citationThe Adult Netherlands Twin Register: Twenty-Five Years of Survey and Biological Data Collection
Willemsen, G. A. H. M., Vink, J. M., Abdellaoui, A., den Braber, A., van Beek, J. H. D. A., Draisma, H. H. M., van Dongen, J., Ent, D. V. ‘., Geels, L. M., van Lien, R., et al. (2013) · Twin Research and Human Genetics · doi:10.1017/thg.2012.140 · Cited by 205 · see citing works
Self-citationvan Beijsterveldt, C. E. M., Groen‐Blokhuis, M. M., Hottenga, J., Franić, S., Hudziak, J. J., Lamb, D. J., Huppertz, C., de Zeeuw, E. L., Nivard, M. G., Schutte, N. M., et al. (2012) · Twin Research and Human Genetics · doi:10.1017/thg.2012.118 · Cited by 167 · see citing works
Self-citationKim, Y. (2009) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-0-387-76727-7 · Cited by 161 · see citing works
Young Netherlands Twin Register (Y-NTR): A Longitudinal Multiple Informant Study of Problem Behavior
Bartels, M., van Beijsterveldt, C. E. M. (., Derks, E. M., Stroet, T., Polderman, T. J. C., Hudziak, J. J., & Boomsma, D. I. (2007) · Twin Research and Human Genetics · doi:10.1375/twin.10.1.3 · Cited by 132 · see citing works
Self-citationThe genetic analysis of repeated measures. I. Simplex models
Boomsma, D. I., & Molenaar, P. C. M. (1987) · Behavior Genetics · doi:10.1007/bf01065991 · Cited by 117 · see citing works
Self-citationKan, K.-J., Dolan, C., Nivard, M., Middeldorp, C., van Beijsterveldt, C. V., Willemsen, G., & Boomsma, D. (2013) · Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.jaac.2012.10.009 · Cited by 116 · see citing works
Self-citationLife events, anxious depression and personality: a prospective and genetic study
Middeldorp, C. M., Cath, D. C., Beem, A. L., Willemsen, G. A. H. M., & Boomsma, D. I. (2008) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s0033291708002985 · Cited by 114 · see citing works
Self-citationScreening for Childhood Psychopathology in the Community Using the Child Behavior Checklist
Bird, H., Gould, M. S., Rubio‐Stipec, M., STAGHEZZA, B. M., & CANINO, G. J. (1991) · Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry · doi:10.1097/00004583-199101000-00018 · Cited by 91 · see citing works
Gillespie, N. A., Kirk, K. M., Evans, D. M., Heath, A. C., Hickie, I. B., & Martin, N. G. (2004) · Twin Research · doi:10.1375/13690520460741435 · Cited by 77 · see citing works
The Impact of Environmental Experiences on Symptoms of Anxiety and Depression Across the Life Span
Kendler, K. S., Eaves, L. J., Loken, E. K., Pedersen, N. L., Middeldorp, C. M., Reynolds, C. A., Boomsma, D. I., Lichtenstein, P., Silberg, J. L., & Gardner, C. O. (2011) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/0956797611417255 · Cited by 72 · see citing works
Self-citationA Longitudinal Twin Study of Fears From Middle Childhood to Early Adulthood
Kendler, K. S., Gardner, C. O., Annas, P., Neale, M. C., Eaves, L. J., & Lichtenstein, P. (2008) · Archives of General Psychiatry · doi:10.1001/archpsyc.65.4.421 · Cited by 69 · see citing works
Self-citationMiddeldorp, C. M., Birley, A. J., Cath, D. C., Gillespie, N. A., Willemsen, G., Statham, D. J., de Geus, E. J. C., Andrews, J. G., van Dyck, R., Beem, A. L., et al. (2005) · Twin Research and Human Genetics · doi:10.1375/183242705774860123 · Cited by 65 · see citing works
Self-citationMiddeldorp, C. M., Birley, A. J., Cath, D. C., Gillespie, N. A., Willemsen, G. A. H. M., Statham, D. J., de Geus, E. J. C., Andrews, J. G., van Dyck, R., Beem, A. L., et al. (2005) · Twin Research and Human Genetics · doi:10.1375/twin.8.6.609 · Cited by 64 · see citing works
Self-citationFranz, C. E., Lyons, M. J., O'Brien, R., Panizzon, M. S., Kim, K., Bhat, R., Grant, M. D., Toomey, R., Eisen, S., Xian, H., et al. (2011) · The American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry · doi:10.1097/jgp.0b013e3181ef79f1 · Cited by 62 · see citing works
Johnson, W., McGue, M. K., Gaist, D., Vaupel, J. W., & Christensen, K. (2002) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s0033291702006207 · Cited by 61 · see citing works
Stable Genetic Influence on Anxiety-Related Behaviours Across Middle Childhood
Trzaskowski, M., Zavos, H. M. S., Haworth, C. M. A., Plomin, R. J., & Eley, T. C. (2011) · Research on Child and Adolescent Psychopathology · doi:10.1007/s10802-011-9545-z · Cited by 58 · see citing works
Dimensional Structure and Measurement Invariance of the Youth Self-Report Across Gender and Age
Fonseca‐Pedrero, E., Sierra‐Baigrie, S., Giráldez, S. L., Paíno, M., & Muñiz, J. (2011) · Journal of Adolescent Health · doi:10.1016/j.jadohealth.2011.05.011 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
The genetics of depression in childhood and adolescence
Rice, F. J. (2009) · Current Psychiatry Reports · doi:10.1007/s11920-009-0026-9 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
Dolan, C., de Kort, J. D., van Beijsterveldt, T. V., Bartels, M., & Boomsma, D. (2014) · Behavior Genetics · doi:10.1007/s10519-014-9659-5 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
Self-citationThe development of fears from early adolesence to young adulthood: a multivariate study
Kendler, K. S., Gardner, C., Annas, P., & Lichtenstein, P. (2008) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s0033291708002936 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
Self-citationDepression and Anxiety in Childhood and Adolescence: Developmental Pathways, Genes and Environment
Rice, F. J., & Thapar, A. (2009) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-0-387-76727-7_26 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
Genetics of Pediatric Anxiety Disorders
Sakolsky, D. J., McCracken, J. T., & Nurmi, E. L. (2012) · Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America · doi:10.1016/j.chc.2012.05.010 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Boomsma, D. I., van Beijsterveldt, C. E. M., Bartels, M., et al. (2008) · VU Research Portal · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Self-citation
Flagged first, then by citations
Cited by
Sorted by citations
The Stability and Change of Loneliness Across the Life Span: A Meta-Analysis of Longitudinal Studies
Mund, M., Freuding, M. M., Möbius, K., Horn, N., & Neyer, F. J. (2020) · Personality and Social Psychology Review · doi:10.1177/1088868319850738 · Cited by 417 · see citing works
Jeronimus, B. F., Kotov, R., Riese, H., & Ormel, J. (2016) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s0033291716001653 · Cited by 360 · see citing works
Bartels, M. (2015) · Behavior Genetics · doi:10.1007/s10519-015-9713-y · Cited by 293 · see citing works
“Additionally, studies disentangling genetic and environmental influences on wellbeing throughout childhood are highly warranted since differences in genetic architecture between children, adolescents, and adults have been frequently observed (Haworth et al. 2010; Huppertz et al. 2012; Nivard et al. 2014).”
BackgroundSelf-citationOrchard, F., Gregory, A. M., Gradisar, M., & Reynolds, S. (2020) · Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/jcpp.13288 · Cited by 175 · see citing works
Early life trauma, depression and the glucocorticoid receptor gene—An epigenetic perspective
Smart, C., Strathdee, G., Watson, S., Murgatroyd, C., & McAllister-Williams, R. H. (2015) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s0033291715001555 · Cited by 61 · see citing works
Neurodevelopment and ages of onset in depressive disorders
Hagan, C. C., Graham, J. M. E., Wilkinson, P. O., Midgley, N., Suckling, J., Sahakian, B. J., & Goodyer, I. M. (2015) · The Lancet Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/s2215-0366(15)00362-4 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
Kehusmaa, J., Ruotsalainen, H., Männikkö, N., Alakokkare, A.-E., Niemelä, M., Jääskeläinen, E., & Miettunen, J. (2022) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2022.02.067 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
Morneau‐Vaillancourt, G., Oginni, O., Assary, E., Krebs, G., Thompson, E. J., Palaiologou, E., Lockhart, C., Arseneault, L., & Eley, T. C. (2023) · Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/jcpp.13847 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
“…were weak but comparable at each timepoint ( r E at 12 years = .12 to .19; r E at 16 years = .07 to .20; r E at 21 years = .06 and .27), indicating that individual-specific environmental pathways modestly accounted for the associations between inter-personal difficulties and emotional symptoms.”
BackgroundResultGniewosz, G. (2023) · Journal of Youth and Adolescence · doi:10.1007/s10964-023-01808-4 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
“…affect also differ during adolescence (12.1–17 years) and emerging adulthood (17.1–25 years), with feelings of loneliness typically peaking during middle adolescence, whereas negative affect continue to increase between adolescence and young adulthood (Mund et al., 2019; Nivard et al., 2015).”
BackgroundInfluential
- Authors
- Nivard, M. G., Dolan, C. V., Kendler, K. S., Kan, K.-J., Willemsen, G., van Beijsterveldt, C. E. M., Lindauer, R. J. L., van Beek, J. H. D. A., Geels, L. M., Bartels, M., Middeldorp, C. M., & Boomsma, D. I.
- Affiliations
- Amsterdam Neuroscience (NL)
- Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam (NL)
- Virginia Commonwealth University (US)
- Amsterdam Public Health (NL)
- Amsterdam UMC Location University of Amsterdam (NL)
- Corresponding author
- Nivard, M. G.
- ORCID
- Venue
- Psychological Medicine
- Publisher
- Cambridge University Press (CUP)
- Published
- 2014-09-04
- Volume
- 45
- Issue
- 5
- Pages
- 1039-1049
- ISSN
- 0033-2917 (ISSN-L)
- 1469-8978
- OpenAlex
- W2144359585
- Cited by
- 213
- References
- 39
- Citations by year
- 2026: 17 · 2025: 21 · 2024: 19 · 2023: 26 · 2022: 22 · 2021: 18 · 2020: 19 · 2019: 20 · 2018: 13 · 2017: 14 · 2016: 8 · 2015: 16
- FWCI
- 8.32
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- pure.amsterdamumc.nl
- Licence
- Locations
- Psychological Medicine (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Amsterdam UMC (VU Amsterdam) - Institutional Repository (publishedVersion)
- VU Research Portal (publishedVersion)
- Data Archiving and Networked Services (DANS) (submittedVersion)
- Pure Amsterdam UMC (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- Funders
- Nederlandse Organisatie voor Wetenschappelijk Onderzoek
- National Institute of Mental Health
- FP7 Ideas: European Research Council (230374)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Genetics › Genetic Associations and Epidemiology
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional Development
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Mental Health Research Topics
- Keywords
- anxiety symptoms, depressive symptoms, heritability, genetic stability, environmental stability, gene-environment interaction, longitudinal stability, lifespan development, adolescence, sex differences, genetic innovation
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Adult, Anxiety, Child, Child, Preschool, Depression, Environment, Female, Genotype, Humans, Longitudinal Studies, Male, Middle Aged, Social Environment, Twins, Dizygotic, Twins, Monozygotic, Cohort Studies, Disease Progression, Young Adult, Gene-Environment Interaction
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
