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Cited by 198Child and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional DevelopmentMaternal Mental Health During Pregnancy and PostpartumMental Health Treatment and Access

Genetic and Environmental Risk Factors Associated With Trajectories of Depression Symptoms From Adolescence to Young Adulthood

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Kwong, Alex S. F., López-López, José A., Hammerton, Gemma, Manley, David, Timpson, Nicholas J., Leckie, George, Pearson, Rebecca M.·2019·JAMA Network Open
DOI 10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2019.6587PMC PMC6604106
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Abstract

Importance: Less favorable trajectories of depressive mood from adolescence to early adulthood are associated with current and later psychopathology, impaired educational attainment, and social dysfunction, yet the genetic and environmental risk factors associated with these trajectories are not fully established. Examining what risk factors are associated with different trajectories of depressive mood could help identify the nature of depression symptoms and improve preventive interventions for those at most risk. Objective: To examine the differential associations of genetic and environmental risk factors with trajectories of depression symptoms among individuals observed from ages 10 to 24 years. Design, Setting, and Participants: In a longitudinal cohort study established in 1990 and currently ongoing (the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children [ALSPAC]), growth mixture modeling was used to identify trajectories of depression symptoms in 9394 individuals in the United Kingdom. Associations of different risk factors with these trajectories were then examined. Analysis was conducted between August 2018 and January 2019. Main Outcomes and Measures: Trajectories were composed from depression symptoms measured using the Short Mood and Feelings Questionnaire at 9 occasions from ages 10 to 24 years. Risk factors included sex, a polygenic risk score taken from a recent genome-wide association study of depression symptoms, maternal postnatal depression, partner cruelty to the offspring's mother when the child was aged 2 to 4 years, childhood anxiety at age 8 years, and being bullied at age 10 years. Results: Data on all risk factors, confounders, and the outcome were available for 3525 individuals, including 1771 (50.2%) who were female. Trajectories were assessed between the mean (SD) age of 10.7 (0.3) years and mean (SD) age of 23.8 (0.5) years. Overall, 5 distinct trajectories of depression symptoms were identified: (1) stable low (2506 individuals [71.1%]), (2) adolescent limited (325 individuals [9.2%]), (3) childhood limited (203 individuals [5.8%]), (4) early-adult onset (393 individuals [11.1%]), and (5) childhood persistent (98 individuals [2.8%]). Of all the associations of risk factors with trajectories, sex (odds ratio [OR], 6.45; 95% CI, 2.89-14.38), the polygenic risk score for depression symptoms (OR, 1.47; 95% CI, 1.10-1.96), and childhood anxiety (OR, 1.30; 95% CI, 1.16-1.45) showed the strongest association with the childhood-persistent trajectory of depression symptoms compared with the stable-low trajectory. Maternal postnatal depression (OR, 2.39; 95% CI, 1.41-4.07) had the strongest association with the early-adult-onset trajectory, while partner cruelty to mother (OR, 2.30; 95% CI, 1.36-3.90) had the strongest association with the adolescent-limited trajectory. Bullying (OR, 8.08; 95% CI, 4.92-13.26) showed the strongest association with the childhood-limited trajectory. Conclusions and Relevance: The least favorable trajectories of depression symptoms (childhood persistent and early-adult onset) were associated with both genetic and environmental risk factors, but the 2 trajectories of limited duration that had resolved by early adulthood (childhood limited and adolescent limited) were not associated with the polygenic risk score or maternal postnatal depression. Bullying was strongly associated with both the childhood-persistent and childhood-limited trajectories, suggesting that this risk factor may have a time-specific effect. These findings suggest that examining genetic and multiple time-specific environmental antecedents could help identify trajectories of varying onset and chronicity.

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  • Emotional symptoms often remain untreated and show continuity into adulthood, where they can escalate into full-syndrome and recurrent anxiety and depressive disorders.

    “Unfortunately, emotional symptoms often remain untreated and show continuity into adulthood, where they can escalate into full‐syndrome and recurrent anxiety and depressive disorders (Johnson et al., 2018; Kwong et al., 2019; Naicker, Galambos, Zeng, Senthilselvan, & Colman, 2013; Wolitzky‐Taylor et al., 2014).”

    From A cross‐lagged twin study of emotional symptoms, social isolation and peer victimisation from early adolescence to emerging adulthood (2023) · cites this paper as Kwong et al., 2019

    The Results (Trajectories of Depression Symptoms; page unavailable) identify a group whose depressive symptoms remained high from adolescence into young adulthood, supporting continuity for some individuals. The Introduction also notes a risk of later psychopathology among people with elevated or subthreshold depressive symptoms. Neither passage establishes that emotional symptoms often go untreated or develop into full-syndrome, recurrent anxiety and depressive disorders. (LLM, conf=0.88)

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Cited by

Sorted by citations

Authors
Kwong, A. S. F., López-López, J. A., Hammerton, G., Manley, D., Timpson, N. J., Leckie, G., & Pearson, R. M.
Affiliations
University of Bristol (GB)
Corresponding author
Kwong, Alex S. F.
ORCID
Venue
JAMA Network Open
Publisher
American Medical Association (AMA)
Published
2019-06-28
Volume
2
Issue
6
Pages
e196587
ISSN
2574-3805 (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2019.6587
PMC
PMC6604106
OpenAlex
W2949566262
Cited by
198
References
11
Citations by year
2026: 21 · 2025: 35 · 2024: 41 · 2023: 31 · 2022: 37 · 2021: 24 · 2020: 7 · 2019: 1
FWCI
20.15
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
cc-by
Locations
  • JAMA Network Open (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
  • Bristol Research (University of Bristol) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
Funders
  • Wellcome Trust (217065/Z/19/Z, 202802/Z/16/Z, 209138/Z/17/Z)
  • European Commission
  • National Institutes of Health
  • Medical Research Council (MR/M006727/1, MC_PC_15018, MC_PC_19009)
  • Economic and Social Research Council (ES/P00881X/1)
  • H2020 European Research Council (669545)
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional Development
  • Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Maternal Mental Health During Pregnancy and Postpartum
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Mental Health Treatment and Access
Keywords
adolescence, early adulthood, genetic risk factors, polygenic risk score, postpartum depression, childhood bullying, childhood anxiety, sex differences, early-onset depression, depression prevention, Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children, growth mixture modeling, Short Mood and Feelings Questionnaire, psychopathology, educational attainment, social dysfunction
MeSH terms
Adolescent, Child, Depression, Female, United Kingdom, Humans, Longitudinal Studies, Male, Parents, Psychopathology, Risk Factors, Parenting, Depression, Postpartum, Genome-Wide Association Study, Young Adult, Gene-Environment Interaction

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