Genetic and environmental contributions to social anxiety across different ages: A meta-analytic approach to twin data
Abstract
Social anxiety disorder (SAD) and social anxiety symptoms (SAS) have been largely studied both epidemiologically and genetically, however, estimates of genetic and environmental influences for these phenotypes widely vary across reports. Based upon available literature, 13 cohorts (42,585 subjects) were included in 3 meta-analytic estimates of the standardized variance components of aetiological influences on SAD/SAS, on the effect of age and of phenotype (symptoms vs. diagnosis). The proportions of variance accounted for by genetic and environmental factors were calculated by averaging estimates among studies, and pondered by the number of individuals in each sample. Meta-analytic estimations showed that genetic and non-shared environmental factors explain most of individual differences for SAD/SAS. In adults, the genetic contribution was half than that in younger patients, with higher contribution of non-shared environmental influences. In contrast, the shared environmental factors seem to be less relevant.
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The largest environmental contribution to change in SAS over time is the non-shared environment, i.e., environmental influences that make genetically identical twins different from one another.
“the largest environmental contribution to change in SAS over time is the non-shared environment , or environmental influences that make genetically-identical twins different from one another [ 45 ].”
Twin studies indicate that the heritability estimates for overall SAD range from approximately 30% to 60%.
“twin studies indicate that the heritability estimates for overall SAD range from approximately 30% to 60%”
From Epidemiology, genetics, neuroimaging, clinical features, and treatment between overall and performance-only social anxiety disorder: a narrative review (2026) · cites this paper as Scaini et al. 2014
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Genomic contributions to anxiety disorders
Dalvie, S., Koen, N., & Stein, D. (2020) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-813176-3.00024-9 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Scaini, S., Ogliari, A., & Brombin, C. (2016) · doi:10.5812/ajnpp.42845 · Cited by 1
“Thus, understanding the underlying etiological processes represents an important research task in the field (2-4).”
BackgroundSelf-citationGenomic Basis of Psychiatric Illnesses and Response to Psychiatric Drug Treatment Modalities
Tsermpini, E. E., Σκώκου, Μ., Kordou, Z., & Patrinos, G. P. (2019) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-813695-9.00005-4 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Activity Level as a Moderator of the Relationship between Child and Maternal Anxiety
Ryan, P. (2016) · doi:10.31390/gradschool_theses.4458 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Okamura, L., Ueji, Y., Izumi, T., Fujikane, D., Ukisu, T., Murakami, H., Shioiri, T., & Ohi, K. (2026) · Dialogues in clinical neuroscience · doi:10.1080/19585969.2026.2661986
“…during public speaking, acting, or singing (Brook and Schmidt 2008; Blöte et al. 2009). with respect to heritability, twin studies indicate that the heritability estimates for overall SAD range from approximately 30% to 60% (Middeldorp et al. 2005; Mosing et al. 2009; Scaini et al. 2014).”
Gazelle, H., & Wu, Q. (2026) · Child Psychiatry & Human Development · doi:10.1007/s10578-026-01991-y
Yildiz‐Ahola, T., Kastrati, G., Fransson, P., Åhs, F., Furmark, T., Manzouri, A., Timmann, D., Månsson, K. N. T., & Rosén, J. (2026) · Human Brain Mapping · doi:10.1002/hbm.70655
“…anxiety and trait anxiety severity, with additive genetic factors accounting for 57% and 51% of the variance, respectively (Bandelow et al. 2016; Hettema et al. 2001; Isomura et al. 2015; Knappe et al. 2009; Scaini et al. 2014, 2012; Smoller et al. 2009; Stein et al. 2001; Tambs et al. 2009).”
Văidean, T., Florean, I., Poetar, C.-R., Roman, G. D., & Dobrean, A. (2026) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2026.121936
Rosén, J., Kastrati, G., Grönvall, H., Tabrizi, F., Furmark, T., & Åhs, F. (2026) · Translational Psychiatry · doi:10.1038/s41398-026-04240-x
“The disorder is moderately heritable according to a meta-analysis of twin-studies [7].”
Gilmour, J., Loi, N. M., Rock, A., Davies, R. L., & Rice, K. (2026) · Journal of Mental Health · doi:10.1080/09638237.2026.2672341
“…study were consistent with previous research which examined the adult SAD-D in an Australian community sample (Rice et al., 2021), suggesting that the APA emerging measure of social anxiety is unidimensional and may be used consistently across age groups (Scaini et al., 2014; Zsido et al., 2021).”
Dietel, H., Wenk, T., Kersting, A., Suslow, T., & Günther, V. (2026) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1712931
“Biological and environmental in fl uences appear crucial in shaping social anxiety as a trait and a disorder (e.g., 9, 10).”
Hucks, M. A. (2025) · InnovAiT Education and inspiration for general practice · doi:10.1177/17557380251399079
“Genetics are more important to consider in childhood, with the contribution of genetics around 53%, compared to 27% in adulthood (Scaini et al., 2014).”
Sainsbury, W., Whitehouse, A. J. O., Woods, L., Jiang, T., & Waddington, H. (2025) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-024-06706-7
“…example, heritability and non-shared environmental factors, such as peer group, were strongly predictive of social anxiety (Meier & Deckert, 2019 ; Scaini et al., 2014), while shared environmental factors and parental beliefs about anxiety were predictive of general anxiety symptoms (Manley &…”
Bai, Z., Shang, X., & Zhang, H. (2024) · Journal of Public Mental Health · doi:10.1108/jpmh-06-2024-0072
Dülger, M., van Bockstaele, B., Majdandžić, M., & de Vente, W. (2024) · Cognitive Therapy and Research · doi:10.1007/s10608-024-10490-0
“Besides genetic factors (Scaini et al., 2014), studies indicate that other parental influences contribute to the development and maintenance of social anxiety in young children (e.g., Ahmadzadeh et al., 2019; Eley et al., 2015).”
Bourdon, J. L. (2019) · doi:10.25772/6njm-hj70
“For the anxiety clusters, heritability estimates were slightly different than previously reported (Lahey et al., 2011; Scaini et al., 2014; Ogliari et al., 2006; Ogliari et al., 2010) except for social anxiety, which was consistent with past studies (h(2) = .”
Result
- Authors
- Scaini, S., Belotti, R., & Ogliari, A.
- Affiliations
- Vita-Salute San Raffaele University (IT)
- Corresponding author
- Scaini, Simona
- Venue
- Journal of Anxiety Disorders
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2014-10
- Volume
- 28
- Issue
- 7
- Pages
- 650-656
- ISSN
- 0887-6185 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W1969538870
- Cited by
- 111
- References
- 85
- Citations by year
- 2026: 8 · 2025: 7 · 2024: 11 · 2023: 8 · 2022: 15 · 2021: 8 · 2020: 13 · 2019: 11 · 2018: 7 · 2017: 10 · 2016: 9 · 2015: 4
- FWCI
- 10.64
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Journal of Anxiety Disorders (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Archivio Istituzionale della Ricerca - Università Vita-Salute San Raffaele (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional Development
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Genetics › Genetic Associations and Epidemiology
- Keywords
- social anxiety disorder, social anxiety symptoms, heritability, genetic factors, nonshared environment, shared environment, age differences, twin studies, variance components, individual differences
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Adult, Age Factors, Aged, Aged, 80 and over, Anxiety, Child, Diseases in Twins, Female, Humans, Male, Middle Aged, Phobic Disorders, Social Environment, Twins, Age of Onset, Twin Studies as Topic, Young Adult, Gene-Environment Interaction
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