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Multiple cues in social perception: The time course of processing race and facial expression
Open accessAbstract
The purpose of the present study was to examine the time course of race and expression processing to determine how these cues influence early perceptual as well as explicit categorization judgments. Despite their importance in social perception, little research has examined how social category information and emotional expression are processed over time. Moreover, although models of face processing suggest that the two cues should be processed independently, this has rarely been directly examined. Event-related brain potentials were recorded as participants made race and emotion categorization judgments of Black and White men posing either happy, angry, or neutral expressions. Our findings support that processing of race and emotion cues occur independently and in parallel, relatively early in processing.
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“Importantly, N2 amplitudes are also sensitive to social and emotional manipulations, revealing for example an “own-race effect” with more negative N2 amplitudes for in-group compared with outgroup faces (Ito & Bartholow, 2009;Ito & Urland, 2003, 2005;Kubota & Ito, 2007;Tanaka, Kiefer, & Bukach, 2004).”
From Interplay of self-other distinction and cognitive control mechanisms in a social automatic imitation task: An ERP study (2021) · cites this paper as Kubota & Ito, 2007
In the citing paper
“In addition, more negative N2 amplitudes were reported for happy compared with angry facial expressions (Kubota & Ito, 2007).”
From Interplay of self-other distinction and cognitive control mechanisms in a social automatic imitation task: An ERP study (2021) · cites this paper as Kubota & Ito, 2007
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Probing prejudice with startle eyeblink modification: a marker of attention, emotion, or both?
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“The absence of the N200 race effect, however, was inconsistent with prior studies reporting larger N200s in response to own-race faces (eg, Dickter & Bartholow, 2007 ; Ito & Urland, 2003 , 2005; Kubota & Ito, 2007 ; Willadsen-Jensen & Ito, 2006 , 2008).”
ResultRauchbauer, B., Lorenz, C., Lamm, C., & Pfabigan, D. M. (2021) · Cognitive, Affective, & Behavioral Neuroscience · doi:10.3758/s13415-021-00878-w · Cited by 8
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“This hypothesized relationship is in line with previous work demonstrating that ERPs indexing early category processing predict later category judgments (Kubota and Ito, 2007).”
ResultSelf-citationREFLECTIONS ON SOCIAL NEUROSCIENCE
Ito, T. (2010) · Social Cognition · doi:10.1521/soco.2010.28.6.686 · Cited by 6
“…social interactions, including social category membership, emotional expression, attractiveness, and information supporting trait inferences (e.g., Cloutier, Heatherton, Whalen, & Kelley, 2008; Golby et al., 2001; Kubota & Ito, 2007; Ito & Urland, 2003; Said, Moore, Engell, Todorov, & Haxby, 2010).”
BackgroundSelf-citationDai, J., Zhai, H., Zhou, A., Gong, Y., & Luo, L. (2013) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0068795 · Cited by 6
“Specifically, the anterior N2b might reflect aspects of cognitive control, while the posterior N2b might reflect visual attention [19,20].”
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Lipp, O. V., Craig, B. M., Frost, M. J., Terry, D. J., & Smith, J. R. (2013) · Cognition & Emotion · doi:10.1080/02699931.2013.867831 · Cited by 7
“Conversely, Kubota and Ito (2007) investigated event related potential in a categorisation paradigm and failed to find any influence of race cues on emotional expression categorisation or vice versa.”
BackgroundElectro-cortical implicit race bias does not vary with participants' race or sex.
Lipp, O., Mallan, K., Martin, F., Terry, D., & Smith, J. R. (2011) · Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience · doi:10.1093/scan/nsq089 · Cited by 6
“The sequence in which the tasks were completed was counterbalanced across participants.”
Background9. Event-Related-Potential Methods in Social Cognition
Amodio, D. M., & Barholow, B. D. (2011) · Dialnet (Universidad de la Rioja) · Cited by 7
Ethnic effects when facing children: An ERP study
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Rubien-Thomas, E., Berrian, N., Cervera, A., Nardos, B., Cohen, A. O., Lowrey, A., Daumeyer, N. M., Camp, N. P., Hughes, B. L., Eberhardt, J. L., et al. (2021) · Cognitive, Affective, & Behavioral Neuroscience · doi:10.3758/s13415-021-00896-8 · Cited by 6
“…with our first hypothesis and previous research, which demonstrates increased attention and diminished cognitive control in response to Black cues (Bean et al., 2012; Correll et al., 2002, 2006; Donders et al., 2008; Kubota & Ito, 2007; Richeson et al., 2003, 2005; Trawalter et al., 2008).”
BackgroundResultXu, W., Lyu, B., Ru, X., Li, D., Gu, W., Ma, X., Zheng, F., Li, T., Liao, P., Cheng, H., et al. (2024) · Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.2237-23.2024 · Cited by 6
Neural Tracking of Race-Related Information During Face Perception
Pang, C., Zhou, N., Deng, Y., Pu, Y., & Han, S. (2025) · Neuroscience Bulletin · doi:10.1007/s12264-025-01419-y · Cited by 10
“Electroencephalography (EEG) has revealed that viewing the faces of different individuals perceived as Black vs White/Asian [2, 10–12] or as White vs Asian [10, 13–15] enhances the amplitudes of event-related potentials (ERPs) as early as 100 ms after face onset (i.e., N1 at the frontal/central…”
Trial-level ERPs predicted behavioral responses during self-referential processing in late childhood
Liu, P., Yang, X. W., & Tan, J. X. Y. (2024) · Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience · doi:10.1093/scan/nsae011 · Cited by 6
“This between-person P2-RT relationship was not reported in previous studies (Dickter and Bartholow, 2007; Kubota and Ito, 2007; Volpert-Esmond and Bartholow, 2021).”
ResultGrappling With Implicit Social Bias: A Perspective From Memory Research
Lucas, H. D., Creery, J. D., Hu, X., & Paller, K. A. (2019) · Neuroscience · doi:10.1016/j.neuroscience.2019.01.037 · Cited by 8
Electrophysiological Correlates of Racial In-group Bias in Observing Nonverbal Social Encounters
Katsumi, Y., Dolcos, F., Moore, M., Bartholow, B. D., Fabiani, M., & Dolcos, S. M. (2019) · Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1162/jocn_a_01475 · Cited by 6
How We Perceive Others Resembling Us
Hoffmann, A., Maran, T. K., & Sachse, P. (2020) · i-Perception · doi:10.1177/2041669520966623 · Cited by 6
“Research, for example, implies that race and emotion cues are processed parallel, which might also hold true for similarity (Kubota & Ito, 2007).”
BackgroundJiang, Z., Recio, G., Li, W., Zhu, P., He, J., & Sommer, W. (2022) · International Journal of Psychophysiology · doi:10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2022.11.009 · Cited by 5
The Dramaturgy of Politics and Power in Determining Budget Problem in District Jembrana, Bali
Syarifuddin, S. (2015) · Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2015.11.049 · Cited by 5
Gong, X., Fung, H. H.-L., Zeng, G. Q., & Tse, C. (2019) · The Journals of Gerontology Series B · doi:10.1093/geronb/gbz049 · Cited by 5
Gender identity relevance predicts preferential neural processing of same-gendered faces
Domen, I., Derks, B., van Veelen, R., & Scheepers, D. T. (2020) · Social Neuroscience · doi:10.1080/17470919.2019.1703807 · Cited by 5
“…effects in ERPs for ethnic groups (Derks, Stedehouder, & Ito, 2015; Dickter & Bartholow, 2010; He, Johnson, Dovidio, & McCarthy, 2009; Ito & Senholzi, 2013; Ito & Tomelleri, 2017; Kubota & Ito, 2007, 2017; VolpertEsmond, Merkle, & Bartholow, 2017; Willadsen-Jensen & Ito, 2006, 2008, 2015).”
BackgroundDifferences in faces do make a difference: Diversity perceptions and preferences in faces
Jaffé, M. E., Jeitziner, L. T., Keller, M., & Walker, M. (2022) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2021.104277 · Cited by 8
Chiao, J. Y., & Blizinsky, K. D. (2019) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190679743.003.0021 · Cited by 6
Other-race categorisation advantage in a binary- vs. ternary-response race categorisation task
Li, Y., Tse, C., & Sun, J. (2017) · Journal of Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1080/20445911.2017.1414822 · Cited by 5
It is Not What You Think it is: Erp Correlates of Verbal And Non-Verbal Ambiguity Processing
Filippova, M., Shcherbakova, O., & Юрьевич, Ш. Ю. (2020) · Neuroscience and Behavioral Physiology · doi:10.1007/s11055-020-00902-5 · Cited by 6
Interactions between the perception of age and ethnicity in faces: an event-related potential study
Alonso‐Prieto, E., Oruç, İ., Rubino, C., Zhu, M., Handy, T. C., & Barton, J. J. S. (2015) · Cognitive Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/02643294.2015.1061981 · Cited by 5
“Kubota and Ito (2007) Ethnicity/ Expression Categorization Independent pattern Wiese, Schweinberger, and Neumann (2008) Age/Gender Priming Age is extracted irrespective of processing demands.”
BackgroundMüller, A., Tucha, O. M., & Falter, C. M. (2013) · University of Groningen research database (University of Groningen / Centre for Information Technology) · Cited by 5
Effects of Sexually Dimorphic Shape Cues on Neurophysiological Correlates of Women’s Face Processing
Welling, L. L. M., Bestelmeyer, P. E. G., Jones, B. C., DeBruine, L. M., & Allan, K. (2017) · Adaptive Human Behavior and Physiology · doi:10.1007/s40750-017-0072-1 · Cited by 5
“Similar research has found enhanced P200 effects for “in - group” versus “out - group” individuals in terms of ethnicity (Ito & Urland, 2003, 2005; see also Kubota & Ito, 2007; Stahl, Wiese, & Schweinberger, 2010) and age (Wiese, Schweinberger, & Hansen, 2008).”
MethodUsing ERPs to unveil the authenticity evaluation and neural response to online rumors
Ding, Y., Yang, X., Zhang, W., Lyu, W., & Wang, M. Y. (2024) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-024-82696-x · Cited by 4
Gong, Y., Li, Y., Chen, X., Xia, Q., Jiang, J., & Du, X. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.794892 · Cited by 4
“Second, the EEG results found a main effect of N1, with subjects evoking significantly larger mean wave amplitudes when confronted with offers from ingroup members than from outgroup members, a result consistent with the previous EEG studies (Kubota and Ito, 2007; Boudreau et al., 2009; Ito and Bartholow, 2009).”
ResultOn the use of gender categories and emotion categories in threat‐based person impressions
Rees, H. R., Sherman, J. W., Klauer, K. C., & Todd, A. R. (2022) · European Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1002/ejsp.2840 · Cited by 4
“Fewer studies have tested how combinations of demographic categories and other categories (e.g., emotion) jointly shape person construal (e.g., Hugenberg & Bodenhausen,2003;Kubota&Ito,2007;Raissi&Steele,2021),evenin the absence of category salience.”
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Ransom, M. (2024) · Philosophical Studies · doi:10.1007/s11098-024-02211-w · Cited by 4
“…a person’s race or gender at speeds too quick for the involvement of cognitive judgments, and that detection of these properties occurs automatically, which rules out the involvement of some types of cognitive processes (Ito et al., 2004; Kubota & Ito, 2007; Ito & Urland, 2003; Dobs et al., 2019).”
Mei, S., Deng, Y., Zheng, G., & Han, S. (2025) · Science Advances · doi:10.1126/sciadv.adt6207 · Cited by 4
Palma, T. A., Garcia‐Marques, L., Marques, P., Hagá, S., & Payne, B. K. (2019) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/pspa0000162 · Cited by 4
Ito, T., & Kubota, J. (2019) · Social Neuroscience · doi:10.1080/17470919.2019.1647875 · Cited by 3
Self-citationCraig, B. M., Chen, N. T. M., & Lipp, O. V. (2022) · Cognition & Emotion · doi:10.1080/02699931.2022.2057442 · Cited by 4
“…may be achieved using other methods and measures that provide access to the processing stages leading up to the behavioural response or that are sensitive to racial prejudice such as response time modelling (e.g. Tipples, 2019) or EEG/ERPs (e.g. GiménezFernández et al., 2020; Kubota & Ito, 2007).”
MethodResultThe Social Neuroscience of Social Cognition
Ito, T. A., & Kubota, J. T. (2024) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780197763414.013.34 · Cited by 3
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A Cultural Neuroscience Approach to Self-Concept Representation
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“L’effet de l’orientation est aussi significatif (F [1-42] = 219, p < 0,001), les visages à l’envers étaient moins bien reconnus (M = 4, ET = 0,2) que les visages à l’endroit (M = 1,1, ET = 0,1).”
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“For instance, Black faces consistently elicit larger P2 amplitudes than White faces (e.g., Amodio, 2010; Correll et al., 2006; Ito & Tomelleri, 2017; Ito & Urland, 2003, 2005; Kubota & Ito, 2007, 2017; Tortosa et al., 2013; Volpert-Esmond et al., 2017; Willadsen-Jensen & Ito, 2006, 2015).”
The Neurobiology of Stereotyping and Prejudice
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The role of task demands in racial face encoding
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Perceiving faces through reconnection‐colored glasses after social exclusion: Evidence from N100
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To shoot or not to shoot?: Examining biased eye movements during a shooter task
Seitchik, A. E., & Girgenti, A. A. (2024) · Police Practice and Research · doi:10.1080/15614263.2024.2369130 · Cited by 1
“Studies have found that racial categories are encoded early in information processing (e.g., Ito & Urland, 2003; Kubota & Ito, 2007) and, thus, may influence behavior.”
Are Deaf College Students More Sensitive to Unfair Information? Evidence from an ERP Study
Sun, L., Dong, Q., Du, X., & Wei, D. (2024) · Brain Sciences · doi:10.3390/brainsci14080788 · Cited by 1
“The anterior N1 component is affected by attention, and attended stimuli evoke a larger N1 than unattended stimuli [21], so novel or threatening stimuli induce more negative N1 [21–25]; the posterior N1 is thought to Brain Sci. 2024 , 14 , 788 2 of 12 reflect visual discrimination processing [26].”
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“Facial expression is one of the most informative non-verbal cues and it is analyzed soon after the initial process for non-verbal communication related to face perception is completed [1].”
BackgroundThe neural correlates of categorical and individuated impressions
Kubota, J. T. (2010) · ProQuest Demo Repository · Cited by 1
Self-citationRacial discrimination and mental health : temporal dynamics and neurocognitive moderators
Volpert‐Esmond, H. I. (2020) · MOspace Institutional Repository (University of Missouri) · doi:10.32469/10355/86513 · Cited by 1
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Tracking the temporal dynamics of cultural perceptual diversity in visual information processing
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The role of race and emotional expressions on trust decisions
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The role of racial information in infant face processing
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Implicit And Explicit Racial Attitudes: Moderation Of Racial Typicality Evaluations
Stepanova, E. (2010) · Open Scholarship Institutional Repository (Washington University in St. Louis) · doi:10.7936/k77s7kwp
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Health disparities and attention to health information by disenfranchised groups
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BRIEF REPORT Searching for emotion or race: Task-irrelevant facial cues have asymmetrical effects
Lipp, O. V., Craig, B. M., Frost, M. J., Terry, D. J., & Smith, J. R. (2014)
The Superiority Effect of Social Perceptual Prediction and Its Parsimony Mechanism
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Tumulty, M. (2020) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190845629.003.0004
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The encoding of race during face processing, an event-related potential study
Zhu, H., Wang, A., Collins, H. R., Yue, Y., Xu, S., & Zhu, X. (2021) · Perception · doi:10.1177/03010066211048573
“However, other literature suggested larger P2 amplitudes for other-race faces among white participants (Dickter & Bartholow, 2007; He et al., 2009; Ito & Tomelleri, 2017; Ito & Urland, 2003; Kubota & Ito, 2007).”
Sully, H., Perrone, K. M., Barrera, S., & Simon-Dack, S. L. (2022) · Journal of Gay & Lesbian Mental Health · doi:10.1080/19359705.2021.2012732
“Our analysis, together with past research using the P200 (Bourisly & Shuaib, 2018; Correll et al., 2006; Dickter et al., 2015; Kubota & Ito, 2007) identified that the largest effect for the P200 was found in the frontocentral region of the scalp map.”
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杨, 圣., 葛, 鉴., 许, 晓., Han, S., Ma, Y., & 范, 妍. (2009) · Chinese Science Bulletin (Chinese Version) · doi:10.1360/csb2009-54-10-1444
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Event‐related potential response to drivers' facial expressions in an online car‐hailing scene
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Tumulty, M. (2020) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190845629.002.0003
Tumulty, M. (2020) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190845629.002.0006
Levine, P. (2022) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197570494.002.0003
The effects of race, gender, and alcohol cues on anger perception in crowds
Summerell, E., Shuttleworth, L., Lin, C., & Denson, T. F. (2025) · Australian Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1080/00049530.2024.2426661
“For instance, research suggests that race is perceived at an earlier stage of processing than emotional expression (Kubota & Ito, 2007), and that outgroup faces are processed in terms of race-relevant features at the expense of later indi-viduating information such as emotional expressions (Levin,…”
Heidrich, V., & Imhoff, R. (2025) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2025.104763
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Toprakkiran, S., & Lai, C. K. (2025) · doi:10.31219/osf.io/sbfjh_v1
Veliks, V., Porozovs, J., Plotka, I., Blumenau, N., & Igonins, D. (2024) · Baltic Journal of Legal and Social Sciences · doi:10.30525/2592-8813-2024-2-2-15
Trawiński, T., Zang, C., Palumbo, L., & Donnelly, N. (2025) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-025-13272-0
Gürbüz, E., Rohr, M., & Wentura, D. (2025) · Cognition & Emotion · doi:10.1080/02699931.2025.2573114
“…Craig et al. (2012) found that task demands and the set size of facial stimuli can modulate cue integration: smaller face sets facilitate interactive processing (e.g. Hugenberg, 2005), whereas larger sets or more demanding tasks often lead to independent processing (e.g. Kubota & Ito, 2007).”
Metadata
- Authors
- Kubota, J. T., & Ito, T. A.
- Affiliations
- University of Colorado Boulder (US)
- Corresponding author
- Kubota, Jennifer T.
- ORCID
- Kubota, Jennifer T.
- Venue
- Journal of Experimental Social Psychology
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2007-09
- Volume
- 43
- Issue
- 5
- Pages
- 738-752
- ISSN
- 0022-1031 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC2031842
- OpenAlex
- W2141177590
- Cited by
- 207
- References
- 46
- Citations by year
- 2026: 5 · 2025: 7 · 2024: 11 · 2023: 4 · 2022: 23 · 2021: 12 · 2020: 16 · 2019: 16 · 2018: 7 · 2017: 14 · 2016: 6 · 2015: 7 · 2014: 11 · 2013: 15 · 2012: 13
- FWCI
- 2.43
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Journal of Experimental Social Psychology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- Ford Foundation
- University of Colorado Boulder
- National Institute of Mental Health (R01MH071257)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Face Recognition and Perception
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Social and Intergroup Psychology
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Evolutionary Psychology and Human Behavior
- Keywords
- facial expression processing, emotion classification, social perception, time course of processing, parallel computing, early perceptual processing, event-related potentials
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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