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Cited by 7Action Observation and SynchronizationNeural and Behavioral Psychology StudiesFree Will and Agency

Interplay of self-other distinction and cognitive control mechanisms in a social automatic imitation task: An ERP study

Open access
Rauchbauer, B., Lorenz, C., Lamm, C., Pfabigan, D. M.·2021·Cognitive, Affective, & Behavioral Neuroscience
DOI 10.3758/s13415-021-00878-w
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Abstract

The regulation of motor resonance processes in daily life is indispensable. The automatic imitation task is an experimental model of those daily-life motor resonance processes. Recent research suggests that both self-other distinction and cognitive control processes may be involved in interference control during automatic imitation. Yet, we lack a clear understanding of the chronological sequence of interacting processes. To this end, this study used event-related potentials (ERPs) to investigate the time course underlying interference control during automatic imitation. We moreover aimed to extend previous results by investigating its modulation by social context. Cognitive conflict/action monitoring was assessed with the N2, in an exploratory manner the N450, and the CRN components. The Pre-Motor Positivity (PMP), associated with movement initiation, was suggested as a possible correlate of the successful resolution of self-other distinction. The cognitive control/action monitoring ERP components were influenced by the social context manipulation and partly by congruency, while PMP amplitudes were only sensitive to congruency. In addition, the exploratorily investigated N450 component predicted response times on incongruent relative to congruent trials in the different social contexts. This suggested that cognitive control/action monitoring processes, reflected in the N450, are guiding behavioral outcomes. Overall, interference control may primarily be guided by processes of cognitive control/action monitoring, whilst being modulated by social context demands.

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

This ERP study examined the time course of interference control during a social automatic imitation task, testing whether self-other distinction and cognitive control/action monitoring interact and are modulated by social context. The results suggest interference control is primarily guided by cognitive control/action monitoring processes, while social context modulates these ERP components.

Key findings

  • Behaviorally, 96% of trials were correct. Reaction times showed the expected congruency effect: congruent M = 481.69 ms, baseline M = 519.99 ms, incongruent M = 542.52 ms, F(2,27) = 66.426, p < 0.001, partial η² = 0.77. Out-group trials were faster than in-group trials (M = 512.35 vs. 517.12 ms, p = 0.050).
  • N2 amplitudes showed a significant GROUP × EMOTION interaction, F(1,27) = 7.233, p = 0.012, partial η² = 0.211, with a trend for more pronounced N2 for angry out-group than angry in-group stimuli (p = 0.077). N2 was not sensitive to congruency.
  • N450 amplitudes showed a significant GROUP × CONGRUENCY interaction, F(1,27) = 8.882, p = 0.006, partial η² = 0.25: more negative amplitudes for incongruent than congruent out-group trials (p = 0.005), but not in-group trials (p = 0.967). CRN amplitudes were more negative for incongruent than congruent trials (M = −5.660 vs. −5.033, p = 0.012), and PMP amplitudes were more positive for congruent than incongruent trials (M = 7.048 vs. 6.289, p = 0.019).
  • In linear mixed models, more negative N450 amplitudes predicted longer reaction times, especially for incongruent relative to congruent trials; the four-way GROUP × EMOTION × CONGRUENCY × N450 interaction was significant, B = 18.77, χ² = 6.15, p = 0.013.

Methods

  • Thirty white participants were recruited; two were excluded as ATB outliers, leaving 28 (19 women, mean age 24.58 years, SD = 3.55). EEG was recorded with 58 Ag/AgCl electrodes while participants performed the Social-Affective Mimicry Task, a modified automatic imitation paradigm.
  • The task used a 2 × 2 × 3 within-subjects design: GROUP (in-group, out-group), EMOTION (happy, angry), and CONGRUENCY (congruent, incongruent, baseline), with 50 trials per condition and 600 trials total. Baseline trials were excluded from EEG analyses.
  • Analyses included repeated-measures ANOVAs for behavioral and ERP data (N2, exploratory N450, CRN, PMP) and linear mixed models predicting single-trial reaction times from ERP amplitudes, with IAT and ATB measures collected post-experimentally.

Limitations

  • The authors state that the study was underpowered for interaction effects based on smaller effect sizes, and that interaction results should be considered exploratory.
  • The authors note that they did not replicate previous behavioral results of enhanced regulation of automatic imitation for angry out-group versus angry in-group faces, possibly due to a smaller sample size than in previous studies.
  • Evident from the text: the final sample was restricted to 28 white participants after excluding ATB outliers to ensure homogeneity, limiting generalizability; the four-way LMM interaction was not resolved by pairwise comparisons, and the interpretation of its origin remains speculative.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.3758/s13415-021-00878-w

Cites

106 of 106 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

14 tests recomputed · 1 with the reported and recomputed p on opposite sides of .05

Claims the paper makes

30 of 79 cited sources checked · 19 supported · 1 flagged · accuracy not yet measured

  • Premisecitation

    In previous work, the Pre-Motor Positivity component distinguished between movement congruency, with more positive amplitudes in congruent than incongruent trials.

    “Recently, we observed that the PMP component not only distinguished between movement congruency, with more positive amplitudes in congruent than incongruent trials.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Rauchbauer et al., 2018 source
  • Premisecitation

    In previous work, Pre-Motor Positivity amplitude variation in incongruent relative to congruent trials predicted the respective response times of incongruent versus congruent trials.

    “We also observed that PMP amplitude variation in incongruent relative to congruent trials predicted the respective response times of incongruent versus congruent trials.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Rauchbauer et al., 2018 source

      The EEG Results section (page unavailable) reports that the PMP amplitude difference between incongruent and congruent trials predicted the behavioral automatic imitation effect—the reaction-time difference—for White-hand stimuli. For Black-hand stimuli, the best predictive model combined PMP and N190 amplitude differences, so the unqualified claim overstates what PMP variation alone predicted. (LLM, conf=0.85)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
  • Interpretationown data

    The study did not replicate previous behavioral results of enhanced regulation of automatic imitation for angry out-group compared with angry in-group faces.

    “We did not replicate previous behavioral results of enhanced regulation of automatic imitation for angry out-group compared with angry in-group faces (Rauchbauer et al., 2016).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Rauchbauer et al., 2016 source
  • Premisecitation

    Brain imaging studies point to a role of the temporoparietal junction during interference control of overlapping action perception and execution, specifically the inhibition of imitation.

    “This finding is corroborated by brain imaging studies, pointing to a role of the temporoparietal junction (TPJ) during interference control of overlapping action perception and execution, specifically the inhibition of imitation.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Brass et al., 2005 source
    • cites Brass et al., 2009 source
  • Premisecitation

    Patients with frontal lesions exhibit problems inhibiting imitative response tendencies.

    “Supporting evidence comes from a neuropsychological study showing that patients with frontal lesions exhibit problems inhibiting imitative response tendencies (Brass et al., 2003).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Brass et al., 2003 source
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 52
  • May combine two claims. 37

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    Findings from a behavioral study suggest that interference control is modulated by contextual factors such as group membership and emotional facial expressions.

    “Findings from a behavioral study suggest that interference control is modulated by contextual factors such as group membership and emotional facial expressions (Rauchbauer, Majdandžić, Stieger, & Lamm, 2016).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Rauchbauer, Majdandžić, Stieger, & Lamm, 2016 source

      The Experiment 1 Results and the pooled analysis of Experiments 1 and 2 locate the group-by-emotion effect in response facilitation on congruent trials, with no significant effects on incongruent trials. The General Discussion likewise says the modulation specifically affected facilitation rather than interference control; it notes a separate trend toward reduced response inhibition only when the situation was framed as personally threatening. Page numbers are unavailable in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.86)

      Checked by a reasoning model — may be wrong.

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductcitation

    Task-irrelevant face and hand stimuli were matched for luminance across conditions using the SHINE toolbox.

    “Task-irrelevant stimuli (i.e., face and hand stimuli) were matched for luminance across conditions using the SHINE (Spectrum, Histogram, and Intensity Normalization and Equalization)toolbox (Willenbockel et al., 2010) for Matlab 8.3 (TheMathworks, Inc., MA).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Willenbockel et al., 2010 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    N2 amplitudes are sensitive to social and emotional manipulations, showing an own-race effect with more negative amplitudes for in-group compared with out-group faces.

    “Importantly, N2 amplitudes are also sensitive to social and emotional manipulations, revealing for example an “own-race effect” with more negative N2 amplitudes for in-group compared with outgroup faces (Ito & Bartholow, 2009;Ito & Urland, 2003, 2005;Kubota & Ito, 2007;Tanaka, Kiefer, & Bukach, 2004).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Ito & Bartholow, 2009 source

      In “Electrocortical responses to race” (page unavailable), the paper reports larger N200 amplitudes for ingroup than outgroup faces in both Caucasian and Black perceivers, supporting the own-race effect. It does not establish the separate claim that N2 amplitudes are sensitive to emotional manipulations; the emotional-response passages concern other measures. (LLM, conf=0.84)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites Kubota & Ito, 2007 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The supplementary motor area has been suggested as one potential generator of the Pre-Motor Positivity and has been ascribed mirror neuron functions.

    “The SMA has been suggested as one potential generator of the PMP (Deecke, Kornhuber, Lang, Lang, & Schreiber, 1985) and also has been ascribed mirror neuron functions (Mukamel et al., 2010).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Deecke, Kornhuber, Lang, Lang, & Schreiber, 1985
    • cites Mukamel et al., 2010 source

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    CRN enhancement might have a protective function against error commission and indicates the degree of engagement of conflict/action monitoring during correct trials.

    “Simons (2010) further proposed that CRN enhancement might have a protective function against error commission and indicates the degree of engagement of conflict/action monitoring during correct trials.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Simons, 2010 source

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Interpretationcitation

    The Pre-Motor Positivity serves as a proxy for successfully resolved self-other distinction.

    “We attempted to replicate this finding, which we had interpreted as the PMP serving as a proxy for successfully resolved self-other distinction (Rauchbauer, Pfabigan, & Lamm, 2018).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Rauchbauer, Pfabigan, & Lamm, 2018 source

      The Discussion ('Action: The stage of response execution'; page not provided) suggests that the PMP indexes motor-related self-other distinction in this task. It does not establish the PMP as a proxy for *successfully resolved* distinction, and presents its proposed role as tentative. (LLM, conf=0.82)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    Interference control during automatic imitation may involve an interaction between self-other distinction and general cognitive control mechanisms.

    “Recent research suggests that both self-other distinction and cognitive control processes may be involved in interference control during automatic imitation.”
    • Also stated in: § Introduction · hedged
      “More recently, it has been suggested that interference control may involve an interaction between SOD and general cognitive control mechanisms (Cross, Torrisi, Losin, & Iacoboni, 2013).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Cross, Torrisi, Losin, & Iacoboni, 2013 source

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductcitation

    Two instead of four consecutive frames were used to minimize the influence of overlapping ERP components caused by rapidly changing multiple frames.

    “Two instead of four consecutive frames were used in this experiment (compared with previous studies (Rauchbauer et al., 2015(Rauchbauer et al., , 2016) ) to minimize the influence of overlapping ERP components caused by rapidly changing multiple frames (see also Rauchbauer et al., 2018).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Rauchbauer et al., 2015 source
    • cites Rauchbauer et al., 2018 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    In stimulus-response compatibility paradigms, the N2 component varies with stimulus congruency, showing more negative amplitudes for incongruent than congruent trials.

    “In SRC paradigms, it varies according to stimulus congruency, with more negative amplitudes for incongruent than congruent trials (Folstein & Van Petten, 2008;Larson et al., 2014;Nieuwenhuis, Yeung, & Cohen, 2004;Yeung, Botvinick, & Cohen, 2004).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Folstein & Van Petten, 2008 source
    • cites Larson et al., 2014 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    Behavioral correlates may capture a compound of several cognitive processes, explaining why their effect sizes are smaller than those of ERPs.

    “Behavioral correlates may capture a compound of several cognitive processes, explaining why its effect sizes are smaller than those of ERPs (see also Pfabigan, Holzner, & Lamm, 2016).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Pfabigan, Holzner, & Lamm, 2016 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    N2 amplitude variation according to stimulus congruency has been found in other SRC tasks.

    “Nevertheless, N2 amplitude variation according to stimulus congruency has been found in other SRC tasks (for review, see Folstein & Van Petten, 2008).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Folstein & Van Petten, 2008 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The N450 is not only tied to cognitive conflict/action monitoring, but has also been associated with congruency processing during action observation and unexpected socially inappropriate actions.

    “Importantly, the N450 is not only tied to cognitive conflict/ action monitoring, but has also been associated with congruency processing during action observation (e.g., whether gestures and a given context match or not, Wu & Coulson, 2005), and unexpected socially inappropriate actions (Proverbio & Riva, 2009).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Wu & Coulson, 2005 source
    • cites Proverbio & Riva, 2009 source

      In “RP and N400 ERP components reflect semantic violations in visual processing of human actions” (page unavailable), the authors report a response to incongruent actions, some of which were socially inappropriate. That supports the portion attributed to Proverbio and Riva, but the paper identifies the response as N400 or action-related N420, not N450. The gesture–context example is attributed to Wu and Coulson, not to this source. (LLM, conf=0.86)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    The temporoparietal junction may play a crucial role in self-other distinction processes.

    “It has been suggested that the TPJ may play a crucial role in SOD processes (Brass et al., 2005(Brass et al., , 2009)).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Brass et al., 2005 source
    • cites Brass et al., 2009 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Top-down motivational effects of the social context influence early neural information processing for adaptive response execution or affect regulation.

    “Potentially, top-down motivational effects of the social context influence early neural information processing for adaptive response execution or affect regulation (Amodio, 2013;Amodio, Harmon-Jones, & Devine, 2003;Derks et al., 2014;Ratner & Amodio, 2013).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Amodio, 2013 source
    • cites Amodio, Harmon-Jones, & Devine, 2003 source
    • cites Derks et al., 2014 source

      The Discussion reports that social-identification motives and identity threat influence early N200 responses during face perception, supporting the top-down motivational effect. It also links early processing to later implicit intergroup responses, but does not establish that the effect serves adaptive response execution or affect regulation. (LLM, conf=0.85)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    High-functioning individuals with autism spectrum disorder do not show modulation of automatic imitation.

    “While high-functioning ASD individuals do not show modulation of automatic imitation (Cook & Bird, 2012)”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Cook & Bird, 2012 source

      The Abstract and Results > Automatic Imitation Task report no difference in imitation between pro-socially and non-socially primed high-functioning adults with ASC. That supports a lack of modulation by this social prime, but not the broader claim that they do not show modulation of automatic imitation under any conditions. (LLM, conf=0.87)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The generator of the PMP has been suggested to be located in the SMA, which has also been ascribed human mirror neuron functions.

    “The generator of the PMP has been suggested to be located in the SMA (Deecke et al., 1985), which has also been ascribed human mirror neuron functions (Mukamel et al., 2010).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Deecke et al., 1985
    • cites Mukamel et al., 2010 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    Interference control during automatic imitation is predominantly driven by cognitive control/action monitoring processes, which are modulated by social context demands.

    “The present study thus partly extends our previous results (Rauchbauer et al., 2018) as it suggests that primarily processes of cognitive conflict/action monitoring are guiding our behavioral responses.”
    • Also stated in: § Discussion · hedged
      “Thus, interference control may primarily be guided by processes of cognitive control/action monitoring, whilst being modulated by social context demands.”
    • Also stated in: § Conclusions · hedged
      “Our findings suggest that interference control during automatic imitation is predominantly driven by cognitive control/ action monitoring.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Rauchbauer et al., 2018 source

      The Introduction describes automatic imitation as interference from a conflicting observed movement, and the Behavioral Results report slower responses on incongruent trials. The Discussion, “Perception: Stimulus processing of ethnicity & SRC,” reports ethnicity-related differences in stimulus processing. But the paper does not establish that cognitive control or action monitoring predominantly drives behavioral responses; the Behavioral Results found no significant ethnicity difference in the automatic-imitation effect. The citing sentence presents that stronger mechanism claim as the present study’s inference, rather than explicitly attributing it to the 2018 paper. Page numbers are unavailable in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.85)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    PMP amplitude variation distinguished between congruency regardless of social context, corroborating previous study.

    “PMP amplitude variation distinguished between congruency regardless of social context, which corroborates the results of our previous study (Rauchbauer et al., 2018).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Rauchbauer et al., 2018 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Variation in PMP amplitude has recently been proposed to reflect clinical implications.

    “Supporting this suggestion, PMP amplitude variation has recently been proposed to reflect clinical implications (Burwell et al., 2019).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Burwell et al., 2019 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    More negative N450 amplitudes were reported for incongruent set-ups and unexpected actions.

    “More negative N450 amplitudes were reported for incongruent set-ups and unexpected actions (Proverbio & Riva, 2009;Wu & Coulson, 2005; see also Amoruso et al., 2013).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim2 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Proverbio & Riva, 2009 source

      The results passage (page not provided) reports a more negative N400 for incongruent than congruent actions (−3.35 versus −1.84 µV). The paper measures this response at 350–500 ms and also calls it an action-related N420, but it does not report an N450 or a separate finding for incongruent set-ups. (LLM, conf=0.86)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites Wu & Coulson, 2005 source
    • cites Amoruso et al., 2013 source

      The section on semantic integration of speech and co-speech gestures (page unavailable) reports a more negative response to gestures incongruent with a preceding cartoon, peaking around 450 ms; its Figure 3 labels this an N450 effect. The review also describes N400 responses to unexpected action endings, but it does not establish N450 amplitudes for both incongruent set-ups and unexpected actions as phrased. (LLM, conf=0.82)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    A significant four-way interaction of GROUP x EMOTION x CONGRUENCY x mean N450 amplitudes predicted reaction times, with more negative N450 amplitudes predicting longer RTs.

    “Furthermore, a significant interaction effect of GROUP x EMOTION x CONGRUENCY x mean N450 amplitudes predicted reaction times (Table 3; Fig. 7; Figures S6 and S7 in Supplementary Material) with more negative N450 amplitudes predicting longer RTs.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The Threat-IAT revealed a large effect of the out-group being more associated with threat and the in-group being more associated with security.

    “The Threat-IAT revealed a large effect of the out-group being more associated with threat, whereas the in-group being more associated with security (t(23) = 3.713, p = 0.001, d = 0.76; Block 3 compatible: M = 840.91,SE = 47.97;Block 5 incompatible: M = 958.78,SE = 36.61).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The linear mixed model predicting reaction times showed main effects of congruency and the N450 component.

    “The linear mixed model predicting reaction times showed main effects of Congruency and the N450 component (Table 3).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Cognitive control/action monitoring ERP components were influenced by the social context manipulation and partly by congruency, while Pre-Motor Positivity amplitudes were only sensitive to congruency.

    “The cognitive control/action monitoring ERP components were influenced by the social context manipulation and partly by congruency, while PMP amplitudes were only sensitive to congruency.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The automatic imitation effect showed a trend toward a GROUP x EMOTION interaction, with no significant main effects.

    “A repeated measures ANOVA showed again a trend result for the interaction GROUP x EMOTION (F(1,27) = 3.911, p = 0.058, partial η 2 = 0.127), in the absence of significant main effects (both p-values ≥ 0.231, partial η 2 's ≤ 0.053; main effect”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data

    No further significant effects were found for N2 mean amplitudes.

    “No further significant effects were found (all p-values ≥ 0.113, partial η 2 = 0.091).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    CRN amplitudes showed a significant three-way interaction, which was resolved in the difference wave analysis.

    “and a significant three-way interaction (F(1,27) = 4.865, p = 0.036, partial η 2 = 0.15), which was resolved in the subsequent difference wave analysis (Figure 5).”
    • Also stated in: § CRN congruency difference waves · plain
      “The CRN difference wave ANOVA revealed a significant interaction effect (F(1,27) = 4.865, p = 0.036, partial η 2 = 0.15).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data

    Participants exhibited a neutral to favorable explicit attitude towards the out-group on the ATB.

    “Participants exhibited a neutral to favorable explicit attitude towards the out-group in the ATB (N = 26; M = 4.10, SD = 0.31).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    More negative N450 amplitudes for incongruent than congruent trials were observed for out-group stimuli but not for in-group stimuli.

    “More negative N450 amplitudes for incongruent compared to congruent trials were observed for out-group stimuli (p = 0.005) but not for in-group stimuli (p = 0.967).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    In post-hoc comparisons, N450 predicted reaction times significantly only in comparisons between incongruent and congruent trials, with more negative N450 amplitudes predicting longer RTs.

    “The comparisons between Emotion x Congruency per Group (all Emotion x Congruency comparisons calculated separately for in-group and out-group trials, Table S3) and Group x Congruency per Emotion (all Group x Congruency comparisons calculated separately for Angry and Happy trials; Table S4) showed significant differences for the N450 predicting reaction times only in comparisons between incongruent”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Findingnone given

    On average across participants and conditions, 96% of trials were correct and entered subsequent analyses.

    “On average across participants and conditions, 96% of trials were correct and entered subsequent analyses.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data

    No other significant effects were observed for N450 mean amplitudes.

    “No other significant effects were observed (all p-values ≥ 0.322, partial η 2 = 0.04).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    In this study, the N450 component predicted reaction times for incongruent versus congruent trials across all conditions, with more negative amplitudes accompanying longer reaction times.

    “Linking neural and behavioral data, we observed that the N450 component predicted reaction times for incongruent versus congruent trials in all conditions, with more negative amplitudes for longer RTs, as expected.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Pairwise comparisons showed no significant differences between the different social context conditions, whether Emotion and Group comparisons were computed separately for congruent or for incongruent trials.

    “pairwise comparisons did not show any significant differences between the different social context conditions (all Emotion and Group comparisons calculated separately for congruent and for incongruent trials)”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    The N450 has been strongly associated with cognitive control and conflict detection processes.

    “it has been strongly associated with cognitive control and conflict detection processes (Hanslmayr et al., 2008;Larson et al., 2014;West, Bowry, & McConville, 2004;West, Jakubek, Wymbs, Perry, & Moore, 2005).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Hanslmayr et al., 2008 source
    • cites Larson et al., 2014 source

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductreasoning

    Gloves were used to ensure that potential regulation of automatic imitation was due to task-irrelevant presentation of ethnically diverse emotional stimuli and not confounded by low-level attentional or perceptual influences caused by color differences of the hands and target cue.

    “Gloves were used to ensure that a potential regulation of automatic imitation was due to the taskirrelevant presentation of ethnically diverse emotional stimuli and not confounded by low-level attentional or perceptual influences caused by color differences of the hands and the target cue.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    The process of self-other distinction most likely unfolds and operates during the whole time-course of stimulus processing and action selection and is supported by cognitive conflict/action monitoring.

    “The process of self-other distinction most likely unfolds and operates during the whole time-course of stimulus processing and action selection and is supported by cognitive conflict/action monitoring.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    CRN amplitude enhancement has been shown in response to successful stereotype control related to ethnic group membership.

    “CRN amplitude enhancement has also been shown in response to successful stereotype control related to ethnic group membership (Amodio, 2008;Amodio, Devine, & Harmon-Jones, 2008).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Amodio, 2008 source
    • cites Amodio, Devine, & Harmon-Jones, 2008 source

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    More negative CRN amplitudes are reported following correct responses in incongruent than congruent trials and when the current trial type violated expectations.

    “More negative CRN amplitudes were reported following correct responses in incongruent than congruent trials and moreover when the current trial type violated expectations (Bartholow et al., 2005).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Bartholow et al., 2005 source

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    CRN amplitudes index strategic use of information to guide adaptive responses.

    “These findings suggest that CRN amplitudes index strategic use of information to guide adaptive responses (Bartholow et al., 2005).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Bartholow et al., 2005 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    CRN amplitude is inversely related to error rates.

    “Its amplitude is further inversely related to error rates (Allain et al., 2004).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Allain et al., 2004 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    An action-perception mismatch constitutes incongruent trials, which result in slower reaction times due to a required inhibition of the automatic action-perception link.

    “An action-perception mismatch (between presented and target movement) constitutes incongruent trials, which result in slower reaction times for movement execution.This is due to a required inhibition of the automatic actionperception link for the sake of correct response execution (Brass et al., 2000).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Brass et al., 2000 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Error rates were extremely low in previous Social-Affective Mimicry Task studies, leaving not enough trials for a reliable investigation of the error-related negativity component.

    “We focused on the CRN variation because error rates were extremely low in our previous SAMT studies (Rauchbauer et al., 2015(Rauchbauer et al., , 2016)), leaving not enough trials for a reliable investigation of the ERN component (Olvet & Hajcak, 2009).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Rauchbauer et al., 2015 source
    • cites Olvet & Hajcak, 2009 source

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    In complex stimulus-response compatibility tasks, more negative N450 amplitudes are observed for incongruent compared to congruent trials.

    “In complex SCR tasks, more negative amplitudes are observed for incongruent compared to congruent trials (Liotti, Woldorff, Perez III, & Mayberg, 2000;West & Alain, 1999).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Liotti, Woldorff, Perez III, & Mayberg, 2000 source
    • cites West & Alain, 1999 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The Pre-Motor Positivity can be observed before the onset of motor execution and may be related to the inhibition of imitative actions.

    “It can be observed before the onset of motor execution (Deecke et al., 1969) and may be related to the inhibition of imitative actions (Shibasaki & Kato, 1975).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Deecke et al., 1969 source
    • cites Shibasaki & Kato, 1975 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    The Pre-Motor Positivity is related to motor commands for movement initiation.

    “We further investigated the Pre-Motor Positivity (PMP), which has been related to motor commands for movement initiation (Bortoletto, Sarlo, Poli, & Stegagno, 2006;Deecke, Grözinger, & Kornhuber, 1976;Deecke, Scheid, & Kornhuber, 1969).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Bortoletto, Sarlo, Poli, & Stegagno, 2006 source
    • cites Deecke, Grözinger, & Kornhuber, 1976 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductnone given

    A sample of 30 healthy volunteers was recruited based on previous studies with a similar setup.

    “Based on previous studies with a similar setup, a sample of 30 healthy volunteers was recruited.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    More negative N2 amplitudes are reported for happy compared with angry facial expressions.

    “In addition, more negative N2 amplitudes were reported for happy compared with angry facial expressions (Kubota & Ito, 2007).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Kubota & Ito, 2007 source

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Matching motor perception and target action constitutes congruent trials, which facilitate action execution and speed up response times.

    “Matching motor perception and target action (e.g.presented and target movement are the same) constitutes congruent trials, which facilitate action execution and speed up response times.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Brass et al., 2000 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    Congruent in-group trials elicited N450 amplitudes on the same level as incongruent in-group and out-group trials, suggesting that participants deployed enhanced conflict monitoring during all in-group trials.

    “Surprisingly, congruent in-group trials elicited N450 amplitudes on the same level as incongruent ingroup and out-group trials, suggesting that our participants deployed enhanced conflict monitoring during all in-group trials.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    Not replicating previous behavioral results might be due to the smaller sample size compared with previous studies.

    “Not replicating our previous behavioral results might be due to the smaller sample size compared with our previous studies.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Given simultaneous processing of social context information in the SAMT, the processing of congruency might be temporally shifted.

    “Given the simultaneous processing of social context information in the SAMT, the processing of congruency might be temporally shifted.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Asian participants attend to the most prominent ethnic group and not necessarily their own.

    “Asian participants, for example, attend to the most prominent ethnic group (e.g., white) and not necessarily their own (Willadsen-Jensen & Ito, 2008).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Willadsen-Jensen & Ito, 2008 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationown data

    The N2 sensitivity to social context could be due to a modulation of top-down processes.

    “which could be due to a modulation of top-down processes.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationreasoning

    In the present study, categorization of the most salient social context stimuli (angry out-group faces) may specifically highlight the need to adapt behavior accordingly.

    “In the case of the present study, the categorization of the most salient social context stimuli (i.e., angry out-group faces) may specifically highlight the need to adapt behavior accordingly.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    The anterior cingulate cortex has been attributed an essential role in evaluative control processes.

    “The anterior cingulate cortex (ACC), as one core brain hub for top-down control of cognitive conflict (Botvinick et al., 2004), has been attributed an essential role in evaluative control processes.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Botvinick et al., 2004 source
    • cites Larson et al., 2014 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The established N450 congruency effect was observed for out-group trials in the current study, suggesting that the N450 reflects cognitive control/action monitoring.

    “This established finding was observed for out-group trials in the current study, which is in line with the literature, suggesting that the N450 reflects cognitive control/action monitoring.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    Previous studies reported more negative N450 amplitudes for incongruent than congruent trials as a sign for enhanced monitoring.

    “Previous studies reported more negative N450 amplitudes for incongruent than congruent trials as a sign for enhanced monitoring (Liotti et al., 2000;West & Alain, 1999).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Liotti et al., 2000 source
    • cites West & Alain, 1999 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    PMP, N450, and CRN amplitudes were sensitive to congruency, with N450 sensitivity only for out-group trials.

    “PMP, N450, and CRN amplitudes were sensitive to congruency, albeit this applied only to out-group trials for the N450 component.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    The direct matching hypothesis suggests imitation as a prepotent response tendency.

    “As such, the direct matching hypothesis between perception of an action and the activation of its internal motor representation (Iacoboni et al., 1999) suggests imitation as a prepotent response tendency (Brass et al., 2005).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Iacoboni et al., 1999 source
    • cites Brass et al., 2005 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    Overall, interference control may primarily be guided by processes of cognitive control/action monitoring, whilst being modulated by social context demands.

    “Overall, interference control may primarily be guided by processes of cognitive control/ action monitoring, whilst being modulated by social context demands.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    This monitoring was not adaptive but rather detrimental, as task performance did not benefit.

    “However, this monitoring was not adaptive but rather detrimental, as task performance did not benefit (by trend more errors in congruent in-group than out-group trials despite longer reaction times in in-group trials).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    The N450 may account for the complex set-up by which cognitive conflict is induced in the Social-Affective Mimicry Task compared with the N2, which may account for conflict in less complex task set-ups.

    “The N450 may account for the complex set-up by which cognitive conflict is induced in the SAMT compared with the N2, which may account for conflict in less complex task set-ups.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    CRN amplitudes were enhanced in incongruent than congruent trials, suggesting enhanced task engagement in these trials to successfully avoid erroneous responses.

    “Replicating previous results, CRN amplitudes were enhanced in incongruent than congruent trials (Bartholow et al., 2005), suggesting enhanced task engagement in these trials to successfully avoid erroneous responses.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Bartholow et al., 2005 source

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductreasoning

    The interaction results of this study should be considered exploratory.

    “Our interaction results should therefore be considered exploratory.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The CRN component is sensitive to socioemotional information and informs required behavioral adaptation of the current social context.

    “The current findings suggest that the CRN component is sensitive to socioemotional information and informs required behavioral adaptation of the current social context.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductnone given

    The current sample size had sufficient power to detect the classic automatic imitation effect at the behavioral level and congruency effects at the neural level.

    “While the current sample size had enough power to detect the classic automatic imitation effect on the behavioral level as well as congruency effects on the neural level”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    Preparation of the behavioral response may already be under way during stimulus processing, potentially reflecting cognitive conflict/action monitoring processes.

    “Our results rather suggest that preparation of the behavioral response may already be under way during stimulus processing, potentially reflecting cognitive conflict/action monitoring processes.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The PMP has been suggested to reflect a command for movement initiation and may depend on strategies for movement initiation.

    “has been suggested to reflect a command for movement initiation (Bortoletto et al., 2006;Deecke et al., 1969;Deecke et al., 1976) and may depend on strategies for movement initiation (Bortoletto et al., 2006).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Bortoletto et al., 2006 source
    • cites Deecke et al., 1969 source
    • cites Deecke et al., 1976 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    Visual inspection of the data suggests the interaction was driven by Emotion x Group x N450 effects in incongruent trials, specifically for the N450 on Happy in-group versus out-group trials and on Happy and Angry out-group trials.

    “Visual inspection of the data (Figures S6 and S7 in the Supplementary Material) may suggest that the interaction was driven by Emotion x Group x N450 effects in incongruent trials, specifically for the N450 on Happy in-group versus outgroup trials (Figure S6) and on Happy and Angry out-group trials (Figure S7).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Previous studies have related CRN amplitude variation to emotional processes.

    “Supporting this interpretation, also previous studies have related CRN amplitude variation to emotional processes (Luu, Collins, & Tucker, 2000;Vidal et al., 2000;Vidal et al., 2003).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Luu, Collins, & Tucker, 2000 source
    • cites Vidal et al., 2000 source
    • cites Vidal et al., 2003 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationreasoning

    PMP amplitude variation could reflect the degree of motoric overlap between self- and other-generated movements at the moment of response execution.

    “As such, it could reflect the degree of motoric overlap between self-and other-generated movements at the moment of response execution.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationown data

    Implicit in-group biases might have been at play.

    “It might be possible that implicit in-group biases were at play here (see Supplementary Materials 1.5, for a potential pointer, as a more positive attitude towards blacks was associated with more negative N450 amplitudes in in-group angry congruent trials).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationreasoning

    The PMP as a go-signal on congruent trials may reflect response facilitation due to the motoric overlap of one's own executed action and the movement of the task-irrelevant hand.

    “It could be suggested that the PMP as a go-signal on congruent trials may reflect response facilitation, due to the motoric overlap of one's own executed action and the movement of the task-irrelevant hand.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationown data

    More positive PMP amplitudes on congruent trials may reflect a potential go-signal on easy-to-resolve congruent trials compared to incongruent ones.

    “Our data could be in line with this, as more positive PMP amplitudes on congruent trials may reflect a potential go-signal on easy-to-resolve congruent trials compared to incongruent ones.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

    Interpretationreasoning

    The results of this study can be useful for identifying potentially maladaptive processes during motor resonance.

    “Our results can be useful in identifying potentially maladaptive processes during motor resonance.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
76 of 76

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    Interference control during automatic imitation is constituted via an interplay between self-other distinction and cognitive conflict/action monitoring.

    “We assume interference control during automatic imitation to be constituted via an interplay between SOD and cognitive conflict/action monitoring.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    No other ERP components have been described to reflect self-other distinction processes.

    “Despite our proposal that this might be reflected by the PMP component, no other ERP components have been described to reflect self-other distinction processes yet.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The angry out-group condition is behaviorally most relevant and thus may require enhanced behavioral adaptation.

    “The angry out-group condition may be behaviorally most relevant and thus may require enhanced behavioral adaptation.”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    The social context manipulation may aid in disentangling self-other distinction and cognitive conflict/action monitoring.

    “based on the assumption that the social context manipulation may further aid in disentangling these two.”
4 of 4

Statistics that don’t add up

Each reported p-value recomputed from its test statistic and degrees of freedom.

  • Inconsistent p-value across alpha = .05: t(27) = 1.918, p = .023

    Major

    The paper reports p = .023 here; recomputing from the test statistic and its degrees of freedom gives p = .066 (two-tailed). The two fall on opposite sides of alpha = .05. The check cannot tell whether the statistic or the p-value is the misprint.

    Reported p = .023 · recomputed p = .066

  • Inconsistent p-value: F(2, 27) = 2.969, p = .060

    Minor

    The paper reports p = .06 here; recomputing from the test statistic and its degrees of freedom gives p = .068. The check cannot tell whether the statistic or the p-value is the misprint.

    Reported p = .06 · recomputed p = .068

  • Inconsistent p-value: F(2,27) = 3.076, p = .054

    Minor

    The paper reports p = .054 here; recomputing from the test statistic and its degrees of freedom gives p = .063. The check cannot tell whether the statistic or the p-value is the misprint.

    Reported p = .054 · recomputed p = .063

3 of 3

Statistics recomputed

Every reported test result, recomputed from its test statistic and degrees of freedom. A result shows as not adding up only once an independent check has confirmed it.

  • Doesn’t add upt(27) = 1.918reported p = .023 · recomputed p = .066The two fall on opposite sides of .05

    “t(27) = 1.918, p = .023”

  • Doesn’t add upF(2, 27) = 2.969reported p = .06 · recomputed p = .068

    “F(2, 27) = 2.969, p = .060”

  • Doesn’t add upF(2, 27) = 3.076reported p = .054 · recomputed p = .063

    “F(2,27) = 3.076, p = .054”

  • ConsistentF(1, 27) = 4.201reported p = .05 · recomputed p = .050

    “F(1, 27) = 4.201, p = .050”

  • ConsistentF(2, 27) = 66.426reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001

    “F(2,27) = 66.426, p < .001”

  • ConsistentF(1, 27) = 3.911reported p = .058 · recomputed p = .058

    “F(1,27) = 3.911, p = .058”

  • Consistentt(27) = 2.418reported p = .066 · recomputed p = .023

    “t(27) = 2.418, p = .066”

    The paper states a correction for multiple tests

  • Consistentt(23) = 3.713reported p = .001 · recomputed p = .001

    “t(23) = 3.713, p = .001”

  • ConsistentF(1, 27) = 7.233reported p = .012 · recomputed p = .012

    “F(1,27) = 7.233, p = .012”

  • ConsistentF(1, 27) = 8.882reported p = .006 · recomputed p = .006

    “F(1,27) = 8.882, p = .006”

  • ConsistentF(1, 27) = 7.25reported p = .012 · recomputed p = .012

    “F(1,27) = 7.250, p = .012”

  • ConsistentF(1, 27) = 4.865reported p = .036 · recomputed p = .036

    “F(1,27) = 4.865, p = .036”

  • Consistentt(27) = -1.994reported p = .056 · recomputed p = .056

    “t(27) = -1.994,p = .056”

  • ConsistentF(1, 27) = 6.176reported p = .019 · recomputed p = .019

    “F(1,27) = 6.176, p = .019”

14 of 14

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.

  • Happy out-group imitation effect is assigned the wrong mean

    Major

    Table 1 gives 536.35 ms for incongruent and 482.21 ms for congruent happy out-group trials, a difference of 54.14 ms, not the 57.91 ms used in the post-hoc comparison. The text later reports 54.14 ms for this same condition.

    Reported 57.91 · recomputed 54.14

  • Automatic imitation difference is defined in opposite directions

    Minor

    The behavioral-analysis method defines the effect as congruent minus incongruent RT, whereas the results calculate it as incongruent minus congruent RT. These definitions give effects with opposite signs.

  • Three-level repeated-measures effects use an inconsistent denominator df

    Minor

    For 28 participants, an uncorrected repeated-measures effect with three congruency levels has denominator degrees of freedom 2 × (28 − 1) = 54, not 27. The reported F(2,27) for the congruency effect is inconsistent with that design.

    Reported 27 · recomputed 54

3 of 3

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

9 of the 115 references couldn’t be matched to a known paper.

Cited by

Sorted by citations

Related

Authors
Rauchbauer, B., Lorenz, C., Lamm, C., & Pfabigan, D. M.
Affiliations
  • Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (FR)
  • University of Wuppertal (DE)
  • University of Vienna (AT)
  • University of Oslo (NO)
Corresponding author
  • Rauchbauer, B.
  • Pfabigan, D. M.
ORCID
Venue
Cognitive, Affective, & Behavioral Neuroscience
Publisher
Springer Science and Business Media LLC
Published
2021-03-24
Volume
21
Issue
3
Pages
639-655
ISSN
  • 1530-7026 (ISSN-L)
  • 1531-135X
DOI
10.3758/s13415-021-00878-w
OpenAlex
W3138854400
Cited by
7
References
115
Citations by year
2026: 1 · 2025: 1 · 2024: 1 · 2023: 2 · 2022: 1 · 2021: 1
FWCI
1.18
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
  • Cognitive Affective & Behavioral Neuroscience (publishedVersion)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Action Observation and Synchronization
  • Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neural and Behavioral Psychology Studies
  • Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Free Will and Agency
Keywords
automatic imitation, self-other distinction, cognitive control, action monitoring, interference control, motor resonance, social environment, N450
MeSH terms
Cognition, Electroencephalography, Evoked Potentials, Humans, Imitative Behavior, Reaction Time

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-10-08.

Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-10-08.

Cited sources are checked by gpt-6-sol.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

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