Multiple cues in social perception: The time course of processing race and facial expression

“…in social neuroscience have reported modulations by socially relevant categories of faces either on the P1 or its negative counterpart on central sites (e.g., sex-typical vs. atypical faces, Freeman, Ambady, & Holcomb, 2010; black vs. white faces, Ito & Urland, 2003, 2005; Kubota & Ito, 2007).”

“…frontal negativity around 120 ms increased to black than to white faces in Caucasians and a following positivity around 170 ms showed larger amplitude to black than to white faces and to emotional (angry and happy) than to neutral expressions (Ito and Urland, 2003, 2005; Kubota and Ito, 2007).”

“Faces have been used to evaluate the neurobiology of emotion (for review see Phillips et al., 2003a,b), emotion expression processing (e.g., Blair et al., 1999; Phillips et al., 1998, 2001), social cognitive reasoning (Pinkham et al., 2008), and the social perception of race (Kubota and Ito, 2007).”

“Similar effects for race and sex have been observed with other paradigms as well (Amodio, 2010; Ito & Urland, 2005; Kubota & Ito, 2007; see Amodio, Bartholow, & Ito, 2014, for a review).”

“…Crites, Gardner, & Berntson, 1994) where enhanced amplitudes occur in response to negatively evaluated conspecifics (Bartholow, Fabiani, Gratton, & Bettencourt, 2001; Ito & Cacioppo, 2000; Kubota & Ito, 2007) or stimuli with greater motivational salience (Nieuwenhuis, Aston-Jones, & Cohen, 2005).”

“Although the participants’ task was to classify faces by either their gender or their race, ERPs revealed that regardless of the task, neural activity at approximately 120 ms indicated stronger early neural responses to Black than White faces (see also Kubota & Ito 2007).”

“For example, faces with neutral and happy expressions elicited larger N2 amplitudes compared with angry faces (Kubota & Ito, 2007 ).”

“Previous ERP studies have shown that racial information is extracted and encoded from faces at a very early stage of facial processing, as early as 120 ms in the N100 component of the ERP, before the analysis of more complex social categories [58–60].”

“…the positive counterpart of the N170, the vertex positive potential (Jeffreys 1989; Joyce and Rossion 2005) or P200 as it is sometimes called, has been described to be larger for other-when compared with own-race faces (Ito and Urland 2003, 2005; Kubota and Ito 2007; Ito and Bartholow 2009).”

“This difference has been argued to reflect a bias in attention toward faces containing ingroup cues (Ito & Urland, 2003 ), and concomitant increases in the depth of encoding processes (Kubota & Ito, 2007 ).”

“Kubota and Ito [86] recorded ERPs while participants made racial and emotional categorization judgments of Black and White men posing with happy, angry, or neutral expressions.”

“Similarly, another ERP deflection that occurs during the same temporal window as the N170, the anterior facesensitive vertex positive potential (VPP), has been described as sensitive to facial stimuli (Jeffreys, 1989).”

“The N2 is also involved in differentiation between different facial expressions (Kubota and Ito, 2007) and between faces of different races (Ito and Urland, 2003), suggesting that the N2 is associated with deeper processing of faces to benefit individuating.”

“…fearful or happy human faces or armed persons in comparison to neutral faces or unarmed persons, leading to a P200 (Carretié, Mercado, Tapia, & Hinojosa, 2001; Correll, Urland, & Ito, 2006; Eimer & Holmes, 2002; Eimer, Holmes, & McGlone, 2003; Kubota & Ito, 2007) or a P300 (Keil et al., 2002).”

“…the N1 a negative deflection occurring 100 ms after a stimulus is presented is often larger when viewing stimuli resembling outgroup compared to ingroup members [i.e. black vs white faces (Ito and Urland, 2003; Kubota and Ito, 2007); however, see Ito and Urland, 2005 for the reversed pattern].”

“Indeed, research has shown that automatic processes can be identified at early stages of neural activity (e.g., Kubota & Ito, 2007) whereas more controlled processes that require executive functions are more likely to occur at later stages of person perception (e.g., Hasting & Kotz, 2008).”

“2005; Kubota & Ito, 2007; Willadsen-Jensen & Ito, 2006, 2008).”

“Previous studies have observed increases in the P200 amplitude to CR compared to OR faces (Dickter & Bartholow, 2007; Kubota & Ito, 2007), however in the current study we found no significant color or structure modulation in this component.”

“…emotional expression moderates a variety of findings in the intergroup literature, including racial categorization (Hugenberg & Bodenhausen, 2003; Kubota & Ito, 2007), evaluations (Chiu, Ambady, & Deldin, 2004; Dasgupta, DeSteno, Williams, & Hunsinger, 2009; Weisbuch & Ambady, 2008), facial…”

“The presence of an early brain response to anger faces seems also to be in accordance with previous findings suggesting that P200 might reflect the existence of a fast and early detection mechanism for threatening stimuli such as fear or anger [5,11,17,31].”

“, 2012), and thereby elicits effects later in ERPs compared with racial features alone (Kubota and Ito, 2007; Tortosa et al., 2013).”

“Each trial was visually inspected for remaining ocular or other artifact; any trials in which artifact was detected were deleted from further analyses (Kubota and Ito, 2007).”

“, 2008) and those of the race of face (He et al., 2009; Kubota and Ito, 2007).”

“…em in at ed br oa dl y. Emotion © 2016 American Psychological Association 2016, Vol. 16, No. 6, 000 1528-3542/16/$12.00 http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/emo0000227 1 race targets’ happy, angry, and neutral expressions faster than those of other-race targets (Elfenbein & Ambady, 2003; Kubota & Ito, 2007).”

“…of visual processing to examine whether configural processing of bodies is a more automatic phenomenon occurring at early stages of visual processing or whether it only occurs at later stages of person perception, implicating more controlled processing (Hasting & Kotz, 2008; Kubota & Ito, 2007).”

“Within an analysis window of 200ms before stimulus presentation until 1200ms after stimulus onset, ERPs were averaged separately for each experimental condition using the corrected, average-reference EEG data set.”

“In past research with non-Black, largely White participants, P200s are consistently larger to Black than White faces whereas N200s are larger to White than Black faces (Dickter and Bartholow, 2007; Ito and Urland, 2003, 2005; Kubota and Ito, 2007; Willadsen-Jensen and Ito, 2006, 2008).”

“Automatic processes tend to be associated with early stage electrocortical activity (e.g., Kubota & Ito, 2007), such as the N170, whereas processes requiring executive functions tend to occur at later stages of processing (e.g., Hasting & Kotz, 2008; Rellecke Palazova, Sommer, & Schacht, 2011).”

“Because the components of interest have been largest at frontal (Fz), central (Cz) and parietal (Pz) midline scalp sites in past research (Ito and Urland, 2003, 2005; Willadsen-Jensen and Ito, 2006; Kubota and Ito, 2007) analyses focused on these scalp sites.”

“The analysis also showed a significant main effect of Expression, F(1, 28)¼ 5.38, P 0.05, indicating that the P2 was larger for angry faces (M¼ 6.44 mV) than for happy faces (M¼ 5.44 mV), consistent with previous research (Kubota and Ito, 2007).”

“Our findings are inconsistent with the view that the processing of facial identity and category information (i.e., race) is independent of that of emotional expression (e.g., Bruce & Young, 1986; Kubota & Ito, 2007).”

“…difference observed in other P200 and N200 race research where no accuracy or individuation instructions were given (see Ito & Urland, 2003, 2005; Kubota & Ito, 2007), it may be the case that the race difference observed after accuracy and individuation instructions would be diminished in…”

“This was shown by relating the magnitude of ERP race modulations to the speed of racial categorization judgements (Kubota & Ito, 2007).”

“Black targets evoked larger early selective attention related components (N1 and P2 waves) than did White targets, while White targets evoked larger N2 waves compared with Black targets [12–14].”

“2011; Kubota & Ito, 2007) and that the difference in response times to happy and neutral Black faces did not reach significance, this effect should be interpreted with caution.”

“Previous work has demonstrated the primacy and salience of racial categorization over other possible categorizations (Ito & Urland, 2003; Kubota & Ito, 2007; Willadsen-Jenson & Ito, 2006) and the difficulty in decreasing its salience (Shriver et al., 2008), andwe hypothesized that race was a more…”

“In addition, negative emotional expressions can elicit greater P300s even though individuals encounter those expressions less in their daily life (see Kubota & Ito, 2007, 2014 for a discussion).”

“In addition, as early-stage electrical activity, the N170 can be considered to be an indicator of automatic processes (Kubota and Ito, 2007).”

“This occurs regardless of task relevance (Ito and Urland, 2003, 2005; Kubota and Ito, 2007; He et al., 2009) or context (Correll et al.”

“Consistent with previous work (Dickter & Bartholow, 2007; Kubota & Ito, 2007), no between-person effect of P2 amplitude on RT was observed.”

“…100–200 ms after stimulus onset, that typically are larger when viewing in-group versus out-group faces (e.g., Amodio, 2010; Ito & Urland, 2003; Kubota & Ito, 2007). van Nunspeet et al. (2014) argued that perceptual attention to the group membership of the IAT targets was enhanced to enable…”

“…race and emotion. i.e. whether race and emotion interact symmetrically or asymmetrically, or are processed independently (Karnadewi & Lipp, 2011 Kubota & Ito, 2007; Lipp et al., in press), and the majority of studies investigating the interaction of race and emotion (Craig et al., 2012;…”

“For example, studies assessing the processing of race and emotion have found evidence for independent processing in speeded categorisation tasks and ERPs (Kubota & Ito, 2007), whereas asymmetrical interactions have been observed in one direction in the Garner paradigm (Karnadewi & Lipp, 2011) and in the other directio…”

“In three experiments with faces of three races as stimuli, the current study aimed at filling this gap in the literature.”

“…of multiple facial cues has been found to differ across task types, with different interactions observed in categorisation tasks (e.g. Hugenberg, 2005; Kubota & Ito, 2007), affective priming tasks (Craig, Lipp, & Mallan, 2014), and visual search tasks (Lipp, Craig, Frost, Terry, & Smith, 2014).”

“In addition, the N2 recently has been associated with enhanced processing of ingroup relative to outgroup targets (e.g., Dickter & Bartholow, 2007, in press; Ito & Urland, 2003, 2005; Kubota & Ito, 2007; Willadsen-Jensen & Ito, 2008).”

“00 08 4v 2 17 议者可能更倾向于追求自利和竞争, 所以优势不公平分配超出了被试预期, 对被试而言是新 异刺激, 会增强视觉注意, 诱发更负的 AN1(Kubota & Ito, 2007)。根据这一解释, 有共情情境 下他人提出的劣势不公平分配应比无共情情境诱发更负的 AN1, 在数值上存在这样的一个 趋势, 但是在统计上并未达到显著。 共情也调节了表征动机性意义的 P2 成分: 就优势不公平条件而言, 除公平程度之外, 无共情情境下被试仅关注自身利益, 而有共情情境下被试既关注自身利益也关心他人的利 益, 且该条件中自我和他人分配的不均等违背了个体的利他动机和追求公平的动机,…”

“Over the course of the 20th century, researchers tackled V. DEVELOPMENT OF CATEGORIES many questions related to racial categorization, from the role of specific facial features (Goodman, 1952) to the influence of the observer’s racial identity (Lent, 1970).”

“For instance, facial emotions expressed by cultural in-group (compared to out-group) targets modulate facial mimicry of participants (Mondillon et al., 2007) and event-related potentials in response to these EFE (Kubota and Ito, 2007).”

“…measure implicit processes (e.g., racial and gender categorization, implicit evaluations, control processes) that occur very early in information processing (Correll, Urland, & Ito, 2006; Ito, Thompson, & Cacioppo, 2004; Ito & Urland, 2003, 2005; Kubota & Ito, 2007; Willadsen-Jensen & Ito, 2006).”

“…that racial and emotional cues are processed independently (Bruce and Young, 1986; Haxby et al., 2000), at least in early neural processing stages (Kubota and Ito, 2007), the current results indicate that neural representation of a face not only integrates variable and invariable cues such as…”

“Associations between facial expressions and social categorization In real life, we often extract social category information (including stereotypes) from faces (Kubota & Ito, 2007), and perceive social categories and facial expressions simultaneously.”

“…up on studies of the effects of poser race on expression categorization which either reported happy face advantages for same race faces and angry face advantages for other race faces (Hugenberg, 2005), or happy face advantages for both racial ingroup and outgroup faces (Kubota & Ito, 2007).”

“These results are consistent with previous EEG findings (Williams et al., 2006; Kubota and Ito, 2007; Luo et al., 2010; Sheng and Han, 2012; Calvo et al., 2013; Zhou et al., 2020) and suggest similar time courses of early neural activities in”