The DOI matches its Crossref record; 72 of the 72 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; none of the 45 sources its claims cite is checked for support yet.
Long-term reduction in implicit race bias: A prejudice habit-breaking intervention
Open accessAbstract
We developed a multi-faceted prejudice habit-breaking intervention to produce long-term reductions in implicit race bias. The intervention is based on the premise that implicit bias is like a habit that can be reduced through a combination of awareness of implicit bias, concern about the effects of that bias, and the application of strategies to reduce bias. In a 12-week longitudinal study, people who received the intervention showed dramatic reductions in implicit race bias. People who were concerned about discrimination or who reported using the strategies showed the greatest reductions. The intervention also led to increases in concern about discrimination and personal awareness of bias over the duration of the study. People in the control group showed none of the above effects. Our results raise the hope of reducing persistent and unintentional forms of discrimination that arise from implicit bias.
Overview
AI snapshot
Written from the paper’s full text.
TL;DR
A multifaceted prejudice habit-breaking intervention produced reductions in implicit race bias that persisted 8 weeks after the manipulation in a randomized controlled trial. Intervention participants showed lower IAT scores than controls, and greater week-2 concern about discrimination and strategy use predicted larger reductions.
Key findings
- Intervention participants had lower implicit race bias than control participants after the manipulation, \(B = -.19\), \(t(88) = -2.82\), \(p = .006\), \(\Delta R^2 = .081\); the reductions at 4 and 8 weeks did not differ systematically, \(B = .091\), \(t(88) = .82\), \(p = .42\).
- The intervention increased concern about discrimination, \(B = .43\), \(t(88) = 2.24\), \(p = .028\), \(\Delta R^2 = .049\), and prejudice-relevant discrepancies, \(B = .38\), \(t(88) = 2.31\), \(p = .024\), \(\Delta R^2 = .047\), but did not change racial attitudes or internal/external motivations to respond without prejudice (all \(ps \ge .53\)).
- Week-2 concern about discrimination moderated the intervention effect on implicit bias, \(B = -.15\), \(t(86) = -2.46\), \(p = .016\), \(\Delta R^2 = .058\); high-concern intervention participants had IAT scores .38 units lower at week 4 and .31 units lower at week 8 than high-concern control participants.
- Self-reported likelihood to use the strategies predicted lower implicit race bias, \(B = -.14\), \(t(50) = -3.18\), \(p = .003\), \(\Delta R^2 = .17\); implementation-related word stems at week 2 predicted lower week-4 IAT bias, \(B = -.068\), \(t(50) = -2.47\), \(p = .017\), \(\Delta R^2 = .11\), and likelihood plus implementation word use jointly accounted for 23% of the variance in week-4 implicit bias.
Methods
- Ninety-one non-Black introductory psychology students (67% female, 85% White) completed a 12-week longitudinal study; participants were randomly assigned to intervention (\(n = 53\)) or control (\(n = 38\)).
- Implicit race bias was measured with the Black–White IAT at baseline and 4 and 8 weeks after the manipulation; explicit measures were administered 4 weeks before and 2 and 6 weeks after the manipulation. The intervention was a 45-minute narrated interactive slideshow with education and training in five strategies: stereotype replacement, counter-stereotypic imaging, individuation, perspective taking, and increasing opportunities for contact.
- Analyses used general linear models with the baseline dependent variable as a covariate, multiple imputation for missing data, moderation analyses, and text mining of free-response strategy-use reports.
Limitations
- The paper states that the multifaceted intervention creates ambiguity about which components are necessary or sufficient, that the study lacked precise quantitative indicators of use of the five strategies, and that future work must show whether reductions in implicit bias lead to reductions in discriminatory outcomes.
- Evident from the text: the sample was non-Black introductory psychology students, mostly White and female, limiting generalizability; the study used only one implicit measure, the Black–White IAT.
Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.
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Claims the paper makes
0 of 45 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“As shown in Figure 5, intervention condition participants with more concern about discrimination at week 2 had particularly low levels of implicit bias at weeks 4 and 8.”
§ Long-term reduction in implicit race bias: A prejudice habit-breaking intervention > Results > Moderation analyses
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passes- Rests on an assumption: The IAT D-score is a valid measure of implicit race bias.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“People in the control group showed none of the above effects.”
§ Long-term reduction in implicit race bias: A prejudice habit-breaking intervention > Abstract
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The only week 2 explicit variable to emerge as a moderator was concern about discrimination, B = -.15, t(86) = -2.46, p = .016, ΔR2 = .058, all other ps ≥ .23.”
§ Long-term reduction in implicit race bias: A prejudice habit-breaking intervention > Results > Moderation analyses
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passes- Rests on an assumption: The IAT D-score is a valid measure of implicit race bias.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“participants in the intervention group increased in concern after they received the intervention, B = .40, t(89) = 2.10, p = .042, d = .38.”
§ Long-term reduction in implicit race bias: A prejudice habit-breaking intervention > Results > Effect of the intervention on the explicit measures
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Intervention group participants had higher concern than control group participants following the intervention manipulation, B = .43, t(88) = 2.24, p = .028, ΔR2 = .049.”
§ Long-term reduction in implicit race bias: A prejudice habit-breaking intervention > Results > Effect of the intervention on the explicit measures
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“when all three variables were allowed to predict post-baseline implicit race bias, only the relationship with likelihood remained robust, B = -.13, t(48) = -2.03, p = .051, ΔR2 = .078.”
§ Long-term reduction in implicit race bias: A prejudice habit-breaking intervention > Results > Perceptions of strategies analyses
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes- Rests on an assumption: The IAT D-score is a valid measure of implicit race bias.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“we explored whether the increases in discrepancies predicted the decreases in implicit race bias, but this was not the case, B = -.037, t(88) = -.67, p = .50, ΔR2 = .005.”
§ Long-term reduction in implicit race bias: A prejudice habit-breaking intervention > Results > Effect of the intervention on the explicit measures
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passes- Rests on an assumption: The IAT D-score is a valid measure of implicit race bias.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Though the effects were weaker, perceived opportunities also emerged as a predictor of lower implicit race bias, B = -.092, t(50) = -2.40, p = .021, ΔR2 = .10”
§ Long-term reduction in implicit race bias: A prejudice habit-breaking intervention > Results > Perceptions of strategies analyses
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passes- Rests on an assumption: The IAT D-score is a valid measure of implicit race bias.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Following the manipulation, intervention group participants had lower IAT scores than control group participants, B = -.19, t(88) = -2.82, p = .006, ΔR2 = .081.”
§ Long-term reduction in implicit race bias: A prejudice habit-breaking intervention > Results > Effect of the intervention on implicit race bias
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“These analyses revealed that self-reported likelihood to use the strategies was associated with lower implicit race bias, B = -.14, t(50) = -3.18, p = .003, ΔR2 = .17”
§ Long-term reduction in implicit race bias: A prejudice habit-breaking intervention > Results > Perceptions of strategies analyses
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes- Rests on an assumption: The IAT D-score is a valid measure of implicit race bias.
- The quote only partly states this claim. 3
- It may state two separate claims as one. 24
- Probably not a substantial claim. 10
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“People who were concerned about discrimination or who reported using the strategies showed the greatest reductions.”
§ Long-term reduction in implicit race bias: A prejudice habit-breaking intervention > Abstract
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesThe quote only partly states this claim.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Perceived difficulty of implementing the strategies and willingness to use the strategies did not emerge as predictors of reduced bias, ps > .23.”
§ Long-term reduction in implicit race bias: A prejudice habit-breaking intervention > Results > Perceptions of strategies analyses
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: The IAT D-score is a valid measure of implicit race bias.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“as did perceived effectiveness, B = -.12, t(50) = -1.86, p = .069, ΔR2 = .063.”
§ Long-term reduction in implicit race bias: A prejudice habit-breaking intervention > Results > Perceptions of strategies analyses
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesThe quote only partly states this claim.
- Rests on an assumption: The IAT D-score is a valid measure of implicit race bias.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Another encouraging finding was the simultaneous effect of the intervention on increasing people’s self-reported concern about discrimination and prejudice-relevant discrepancies.”
§ Long-term reduction in implicit race bias: A prejudice habit-breaking intervention > Discussion
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We also tested whether likelihood was related to use of implementation-related word stems, but, in fact, these two variables were almost entirely independent of each other, r = .027.”
§ Long-term reduction in implicit race bias: A prejudice habit-breaking intervention > Results > Strategy use free-response analyses
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Rests on an assumption: Participants’ free-response descriptions of strategy use accurately reflect their actual use of strategies.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Perceived opportunities was, however, highly correlated with likelihood, r = .76, as was effectiveness, r = .40”
§ Long-term reduction in implicit race bias: A prejudice habit-breaking intervention > Results > Perceptions of strategies analyses
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The interactive effect of condition and concern was entirely driven by a robust relationship between concern and implicit bias in the intervention condition, B = -.16, t(86) = -2.90, p = .009, ΔR2 = .12, a relationship that was entirely absent in the control condition, B = .028, t(86) = .55, p = .59, ΔR2 = .005.”
§ Long-term reduction in implicit race bias: A prejudice habit-breaking intervention > Results > Moderation analyses
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: The IAT D-score is a valid measure of implicit race bias.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The intervention manipulation created no changes in either the participants’ reported racial attitudes or their internal/external motivations to respond without prejudice (all ps ≥ .53).”
§ Long-term reduction in implicit race bias: A prejudice habit-breaking intervention > Results > Effect of the intervention on the explicit measures
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Compared to high concern control group participants, the predicted IAT scores of high concern participants in the intervention group were .38 units lower at week 4 and .31 units lower at week 8.”
§ Long-term reduction in implicit race bias: A prejudice habit-breaking intervention > Results > Moderation analyses
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: The IAT D-score is a valid measure of implicit race bias.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“People who were concerned about discrimination or who reported using the strategies showed the greatest reductions.”
§ Long-term reduction in implicit race bias: A prejudice habit-breaking intervention > Abstract
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesThe quote only partly states this claim.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“some general dual-process theories in psychology (e.g., Epstein, 1994; Smith & DeCoster, 2000; Strack & Deutsch, 2004) suggest that such reductions are likely to be highly contextual and short-lived.”
§ Long-term reduction in implicit race bias: A prejudice habit-breaking intervention > Abstract
What the sources say
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Several theorists have implicated implicit race biases, which are automatically activated and often unintentional, as major contributors to the perpetuation of discrimination”
§ Long-term reduction in implicit race bias: A prejudice habit-breaking intervention > Abstract
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Devine, 1989 source
- Not checked yetcites Fiske, 1998
- Not checked yetcites Gaertner & Dovidio, 1986
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“accumulating evidence reveals that implicit biases are linked to discriminatory outcomes ranging from the seemingly mundane, such as poorer quality interactions (McConnell & Leibold, 2001), to the obviously consequential, such as constrained employment opportunities (Bertrand & Malainathan, 2004) and a decreased likelihood of receiving life-saving emergency medical treatments (Green et al., 2007).”
§ Long-term reduction in implicit race bias: A prejudice habit-breaking intervention > Abstract
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites McConnell & Leibold, 2001
- Not checked yetcites Bertrand & Malainathan, 2004
- Not checked yetcites Green et al., 2007 source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Many theorists argue that implicit biases persist and are powerful determinants of behavior precisely because people lack personal awareness of them and they can occur despite conscious nonprejudiced attitudes or intentions”
§ Long-term reduction in implicit race bias: A prejudice habit-breaking intervention > Abstract
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Bargh, 1999
- Not checked yetcites Devine, 1989 source
- Not checked yetcites Gaertner & Dovidio, 1986
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“These efforts have yielded a number of easy-to-implement strategies, such as taking the perspective of stigmatized others (Galinsky & Moskowitz, 2000) and imagining counter-stereotypic examples (Blair, Ma, & Lenton, 2001; Dasgupta & Greenwald, 2001), that lead to substantial reductions in implicit bias, at least for a short time (i.e., up to 24 hours).”
§ Long-term reduction in implicit race bias: A prejudice habit-breaking intervention > Abstract
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Galinsky & Moskowitz, 2000
- Not checked yetcites Blair, Ma, & Lenton, 2001
- Not checked yetcites Dasgupta & Greenwald, 2001
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Devine’s habit-breaking analysis of prejudice reduction, which argues that overcoming prejudice is a protracted process that requires considerable effort in the pursuit of a nonprejudiced goal”
§ Long-term reduction in implicit race bias: A prejudice habit-breaking intervention > Abstract
What the sources say
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✗ Checkable: fails✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“widespread evidence suggests that Black people face continuing discrimination and have more adverse outcomes than White people across a variety of domains related to success and well-being”
§ Long-term reduction in implicit race bias: A prejudice habit-breaking intervention > Abstract
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Bertrand & Malainathan, 2004
- Not checked yetcites Bradford, Newkirk, & Holden, 2009
- Not checked yetcites Mitchell, Haw, Pfeiffer, & Meissner, 2005
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“we believe that our findings provide an important demonstration that an intervention can engage the long-term regulation of implicit bias, as well as some preliminary evidence that the regulation occurs through the use of strategies.”
§ Long-term reduction in implicit race bias: A prejudice habit-breaking intervention > Discussion
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: The IAT D-score is a valid measure of implicit race bias.
- Rests on an assumption: Participants’ free-response descriptions of strategy use accurately reflect their actual use of strategies.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The intervention thus seems to increase both personal awareness of one’s bias and a general concern about discrimination in society.”
§ Long-term reduction in implicit race bias: A prejudice habit-breaking intervention > Discussion
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Attrition rates were low, never exceeding 10% at any time point.”
§ Long-term reduction in implicit race bias: A prejudice habit-breaking intervention > Method > Participants and design
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Given that week 2 concern, and not baseline concern, moderated the effect of the intervention, this finding also suggests that concern is not important when bias-reducing strategies are learned, but that it is important afterwards, when people become aware of personal or societal expressions of bias and must translate their knowledge of bias-reducing strategies into action.”
§ Long-term reduction in implicit race bias: A prejudice habit-breaking intervention > Discussion
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Devine and colleagues (Devine & Monteith, 1993; Plant & Devine, 2009) argue that the motivation to break the prejudice habit stems from two sources. First, people must be aware of their biases and, second, they must be concerned about the consequences of their biases before they will be motivated to exert effort to eliminate them.”
§ Long-term reduction in implicit race bias: A prejudice habit-breaking intervention > Multifaceted prejudice habit-breaking intervention
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Devine & Monteith, 1993
- Not checked yetcites Plant & Devine, 2009
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Thus, to have a reduction in implicit race bias, it appears that participants had not only to perceive opportunities to implement the strategies and view the strategies as effective, but also to believe that they were likely to use them.”
§ Long-term reduction in implicit race bias: A prejudice habit-breaking intervention > Results > Perceptions of strategies analyses
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: The IAT D-score is a valid measure of implicit race bias.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Furthermore, people need to know when biased responses are likely to occur and how to replace those biased responses with responses more consistent with their goals.”
§ Long-term reduction in implicit race bias: A prejudice habit-breaking intervention > Multifaceted prejudice habit-breaking intervention
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✗ Checkable: fails✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“when these people act with prejudice, they experience guilt (Devine et al., 1991), which instigates self-regulatory efforts to disrupt automatic bias and prevent future expressions of bias”
§ Long-term reduction in implicit race bias: A prejudice habit-breaking intervention > Abstract
What the sources say
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“The IAT is a dual-categorization task that has good psychometric properties (Cunningham, Preacher, & Banaji, 2001; Hofmann et al., 2005) and is linked to basic neural and affective processes relevant to implicit race bias (Cunningham, Raye, & Johnson, 2004; Phelps et al., 2000).”
§ Long-term reduction in implicit race bias: A prejudice habit-breaking intervention > Method > Implicit measure
What the sources say
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“in intergroup contexts, the IAT is a strong predictor of discriminatory behavior and a better predictor than parallel explicit measures (Greenwald, Poehlman, Uhlmann, & Banaji, 2009; but see Blanton et al., 2009 for an opposing view).”
§ Long-term reduction in implicit race bias: A prejudice habit-breaking intervention > Method > Implicit measure
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Greenwald, Poehlman, Uhlmann, & Banaji, 2009 source
Strength:boosted· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Perspective taking increases psychological closeness to the stigmatized group, which ameliorates automatic group-based evaluations (Galinsky & Moskowitz, 2000).”
§ Long-term reduction in implicit race bias: A prejudice habit-breaking intervention > Method > Strategies for reducing implicit race bias
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Galinsky & Moskowitz, 2000
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“attrition rates did not vary across condition at any time point, all ps > .23”
§ Long-term reduction in implicit race bias: A prejudice habit-breaking intervention > Method > Participants and design
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“As a set, the analyses on shoulds, woulds, and prejudice-relevant discrepancies suggest that the intervention caused people to become more aware of their personal bias, while leaving people’s standards for behavior in prejudice-relevant situations unchanged.”
§ Long-term reduction in implicit race bias: A prejudice habit-breaking intervention > Results > Effect of the intervention on the explicit measures
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Increased contact can ameliorate implicit bias through a wide variety of mechanisms, including altering the cognitive representations of the group or by directly improving evaluations of the group (Pettigrew, 1998; Pettigrew & Tropp, 2006).”
§ Long-term reduction in implicit race bias: A prejudice habit-breaking intervention > Method > Strategies for reducing implicit race bias
What the sources say
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Participants were randomly assigned to either a control condition (n = 38) or an intervention condition (n = 53)”
§ Long-term reduction in implicit race bias: A prejudice habit-breaking intervention > Method > Participants and design
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“The word frequency and likelihood findings, combined with the findings about change in implicit bias, personal awareness, and concern, support the prejudice habit model and other dual-process models that identify effort as necessary for implicit bias reduction (Devine, 1989; Devine & Monteith, 1993; Smith & DeCoster, 2000; Strack & Deutsch, 2004).”
§ Long-term reduction in implicit race bias: A prejudice habit-breaking intervention > Discussion
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Devine, 1989 source
- Not checked yetcites Devine & Monteith, 1993
- Not checked yetcites Smith & DeCoster, 2000
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: The IAT D-score is a valid measure of implicit race bias.
- Rests on an assumption: Participants’ free-response descriptions of strategy use accurately reflect their actual use of strategies.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In sum, this study presents the first intervention of its kind, one that, using a randomized controlled design, produces a reduction in implicit race bias that endures for at least two months.”
§ Long-term reduction in implicit race bias: A prejudice habit-breaking intervention > Discussion
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: The IAT D-score is a valid measure of implicit race bias.
The authors state this as an assumption.
In the Black-White IAT, to the extent that negative valence is associated with Black people and positive valence with White people, compatible trials are easier than incompatible trials.
“Underlying the race IAT is the assumption that, to the extent that negative valence is associated with Black people (and positive valence with White people), when Black faces and unpleasant words (and White faces and pleasant words) are paired together on the same response key (compatible trials), the task should be easier than with the reverse pairings (incompatible trials).”
The paper relies on this without support.
Extant research has not yet examined whether interventions can produce long-term implicit bias reductions, nor clearly specified the type of effort required to yield such reductions.
“Although this evidence is consistent with the prejudice habit-breaking framework, extant research has not yet examined whether interventions can produce long-term implicit bias reductions, nor has it clearly specified the type of effort required to yield such reductions.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The IAT D-score is a valid measure of implicit race bias.
“The intervention had a lasting effect on one measure of implicit race bias.”
“indicating that people high in concern about discrimination at week 2 retained the reductions in IAT bias 8 weeks after the intervention.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Participants’ free-response descriptions of strategy use accurately reflect their actual use of strategies.
“Participants’ descriptions of their strategy use were rich and complex.”
“we used a text mining approach to calculate frequencies of theoretically important word stems in the descriptions.”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
In the citing paper
“One study of university students documented that non-black adults could be motivated to increase their awareness of racial bias, their concerns about the effects of such bias and their willingness to implement strategies to reduce such bias [77].”
From Reducing Racial Inequities in Health: Using What We Already Know to Take Action (2019) · cites this paper as [77]
In the citing paper
“These researchers viewed implicit biases as deeply engrained habits that can be replaced by learning multiple new prejudice-reducing strategies including stereotype replacement, counter-stereotype imaging, individuation, perspective taking and increasing interracial contact.”
From Reducing Racial Inequities in Health: Using What We Already Know to Take Action (2019) · cites this paper as [77]
In the citing paper
“The study found that these strategies reduced bias in participants and that this effect remained evident three months later.”
From Reducing Racial Inequities in Health: Using What We Already Know to Take Action (2019) · cites this paper as [77]
Statistics that don’t add up
Each reported p-value recomputed from its test statistic and degrees of freedom.
Inconsistent p-value across alpha = .05: t(48) = -2.03, p = .051
MajorThe paper reports p = .051 here; recomputing from the test statistic and its degrees of freedom gives p = .048 (two-tailed). The two fall on opposite sides of alpha = .05. The check cannot tell whether the statistic or the p-value is the misprint.
Reported p = .051 · recomputed p = .048
“t(48) = -2.03, p = .051”
Inconsistent p-value: t(86) = -2.90, p = .009
MinorThe paper reports p = .009 here; recomputing from the test statistic and its degrees of freedom gives p = .005 (two-tailed). The check cannot tell whether the statistic or the p-value is the misprint.
Reported p = .009 · recomputed p = .005
“t(86) = -2.90, p = .009”
Inconsistent p-value: t(89) = 2.10, p = .042
MinorThe paper reports p = .042 here; recomputing from the test statistic and its degrees of freedom gives p = .039 (two-tailed). The check cannot tell whether the statistic or the p-value is the misprint.
Reported p = .042 · recomputed p = .039
“t(89) = 2.10, p = .042”
Inconsistent p-value: t(50) = -2.40, p = .021
MinorThe paper reports p = .021 here; recomputing from the test statistic and its degrees of freedom gives p = .020 (two-tailed). The check cannot tell whether the statistic or the p-value is the misprint.
Reported p = .021 · recomputed p = .020
“t(50) = -2.40, p = .021”
Inconsistent p-value: t(49) = -2.66, p = .012
MinorThe paper reports p = .012 here; recomputing from the test statistic and its degrees of freedom gives p = .011 (two-tailed). The check cannot tell whether the statistic or the p-value is the misprint.
Reported p = .012 · recomputed p = .011
“t(49) = -2.66, p = .012”
Inconsistent p-value: t(49) = -2.40, p = .028
MinorThe paper reports p = .028 here; recomputing from the test statistic and its degrees of freedom gives p = .020 (two-tailed). The check cannot tell whether the statistic or the p-value is the misprint.
Reported p = .028 · recomputed p = .020
“t(49) = -2.40, p = .028”
Statistics recomputed
Every reported test result, recomputed from its test statistic and degrees of freedom. A result shows as not adding up only once an independent check has confirmed it.
- Doesn’t add upt(48) = -2.03reported p = .051 · recomputed p = .048The two fall on opposite sides of .05
“t(48) = -2.03, p = .051”
- Doesn’t add upt(89) = 2.1reported p = .042 · recomputed p = .039
“t(89) = 2.10, p = .042”
- Doesn’t add upt(86) = -2.9reported p = .009 · recomputed p = .005
“t(86) = -2.90, p = .009”
- Doesn’t add upt(50) = -2.4reported p = .021 · recomputed p = .020
“t(50) = -2.40, p = .021”
- Doesn’t add upt(49) = -2.4reported p = .028 · recomputed p = .020
“t(49) = -2.40, p = .028”
- Doesn’t add upt(49) = -2.66reported p = .012 · recomputed p = .011
“t(49) = -2.66, p = .012”
- Consistentt(88) = -2.82reported p = .006 · recomputed p = .006
“t(88) = -2.82, p = .006”
- Consistentt(88) = 0.82reported p = .42 · recomputed p = .414
“t(88) = .82, p = .42”
- Consistentt(88) = 2.24reported p = .028 · recomputed p = .028
“t(88) = 2.24, p = .028”
- Consistentt(89) = -0.22reported p = .83 · recomputed p = .826
“t(89) = -.22, p = .83”
- Consistentt(88) = 2.35reported p = .021 · recomputed p = .021
“t(88) = 2.35, p = .021”
- Consistentt(88) = -0.6reported p = .55 · recomputed p = .550
“t(88) = -.60, p = .55”
- Consistentt(88) = 2.31reported p = .024 · recomputed p = .023
“t(88) = 2.31, p = .024”
- Consistentt(88) = -0.93reported p = .36 · recomputed p = .355
“t(88) = -.93, p = .36”
- Consistentt(88) = 1.93reported p = .057 · recomputed p = .057
“t(88) = 1.93, p = .057”
- Consistentt(88) = -0.67reported p = .5 · recomputed p = .505
“t(88) = -.67, p = .50”
- Consistentt(88) = -0.37reported p = .72 · recomputed p = .712
“t(88) = -.37, p = .72”
- Consistentt(86) = -2.46reported p = .016 · recomputed p = .016
“t(86) = -2.46, p = .016”
- Consistentt(86) = -0.082reported p = .94 · recomputed p = .935
“t(86) = -.082, p = .94”
- Consistentt(86) = 0.55reported p = .59 · recomputed p = .584
“t(86) = .55, p = .59”
- Consistentt(82) = -2.31reported p = .024 · recomputed p = .023
“t(82) = -2.31, p = .024”
- Consistentt(50) = -3.18reported p = .003 · recomputed p = .003
“t(50) = -3.18, p = .003”
- Consistentt(50) = -0.69reported p = .5 · recomputed p = .493
“t(50) = -.69, p = .50”
- Consistentt(50) = -1.86reported p = .069 · recomputed p = .069
“t(50) = -1.86, p = .069”
- Consistentt(50) = -2.47reported p = .017 · recomputed p = .017
“t(50) = -2.47, p = .017”
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.
The number of strategies changes from five to six
MinorThe training section says participants were taught five strategies, but the strategy-measures section says responses were averaged across six techniques.
“The participants’ responses to each item for all six techniques were averaged”
“The training section provided participants with a list of five strategies culled from the literature and adapted for the intervention”
Discrepancies are attributed to the wrong assessment weeks
MinorThe methods place the post-intervention explicit assessments, which include prejudice-relevant discrepancies, at weeks 2 and 6. The results instead describe the discrepancy effect at weeks 4 and 8, when the IAT was assessed.
“The effect of the intervention on discrepancies was not systematically different at week 4 and week 8, B = -.067, t(88) = -.37, p = .72, ΔR2 = .004”
“The explicit measures were also administered at three time points: 4 weeks prior to the manipulation in a classroom setting (baseline) and 2 and 6 weeks after the manipulation via email.”
Baseline racial-attitudes mean exceeds the scale maximum
MinorThe Attitudes Towards Blacks items are scored from 1 to 7 and averaged, so the reported baseline mean of 7.57 is impossible on the stated scale.
“baseline M = 7.57, SD = .68, skew = -.53, α = .82”
“The ATB has 20 items, each assessed on a 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree) scale. Responses to the items are averaged together”
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Awad, G. H., & Rackley, K. R. (2017) · The International Encyclopedia of Intercultural Communication · doi:10.1002/9781118783665.ieicc0171 · Cited by 1
Heiden‐Rootes, K. M., Addison, S. M., & Pettinelli, J. D. (2020) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9781119438519.ch65 · Cited by 1
Relation among ethnic studies courses and the reduction of explicit and implicit racial bias
Rivas, J. A. (2020) · doi:10.31274/etd-20210114-127 · Cited by 1
The Impact of Experienced and Expressed Emotion on Legal FactfindingPreprint
Salerno, J. M. (2021) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/w5agm · Cited by 1
(2013) · The Annals of Family Medicine · doi:10.1370/afm.1486 · Cited by 1
Prejudice in the lives of children and adolescents
Jackson, L. M., & Ellis, W. E. (2022) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-818872-9.00077-7 · Cited by 1
UNDERSTANDING SUBTLE GENDER BIAS RECOGNITION AMONG WITNESSES IN A STEM UNDERGRADUATE CONTEXT
Morris, D. L. (2024) · doi:10.37099/mtu.dc.etdr/1717 · Cited by 1
Learning Source Biases: Multisource Misspecifications and Their Impact on PredictionsPreprint
He, J., Hu, L., Kovach, M., & Li, A. (2024) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.4943579 · Cited by 1
Ikwara, E. A., Kengonzi, P., & Isiko, I. (2024) · Research Square · doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-5295211/v1 · Cited by 1
Najdowski, C. J., Bernstein, K. M., & Wahrer, K. S. (2025) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.5221047 · Cited by 1
Salmanowitz, N. (2015) · DukeSpace (Duke University)
Fine, E., Wendt, A. E., & Carnes, M. L. (2014) · XRDS Crossroads The ACM Magazine for Students · doi:10.1145/2605000
Zahller, T. M. (2013) · Smith ScholarWorks (Smith College)
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Phelps, A. D. (2015) · Digital Commons - URI (University of Rhode Island) · doi:10.23860/diss-phelps-aimee-2015
The Promise of Accountability: Countering Racial Bias in Decision-Making
Carbone, C. S. (2014) · eScholarship (California Digital Library)
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Wolf, L. J. (2015) · ORCA Online Research @Cardiff (Cardiff University)
Cannara, R. E. (2016) · eScholarship (California Digital Library)
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Metadata
- Authors
- Devine, P. G., Forscher, P. S., Austin, A. J., & Cox, W. T. L.
- Affiliations
- University of Wisconsin–Madison (US)
- Corresponding author
- Devine, Patricia G.
- Venue
- Journal of Experimental Social Psychology
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2012-11
- Volume
- 48
- Issue
- 6
- Pages
- 1267-1278
- ISSN
- 0022-1031 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC3603687
- OpenAlex
- W2025640120
- Semantic Scholar
- 6d2d8282627bfcaf933e3d68d3e9c170b75f2f1f
- Cited by
- 1,259
- References
- 69
- Citations by year
- 2026: 82 · 2025: 140 · 2024: 111 · 2023: 104 · 2022: 136 · 2021: 127 · 2020: 155 · 2019: 112 · 2018: 90 · 2017: 70 · 2016: 53 · 2015: 37 · 2014: 26 · 2013: 13 · 2012: 1
- FWCI
- 81.23
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- europepmc.org
- Locations
- Journal of Experimental Social Psychology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (acceptedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Journal of the Arkansas Academy of Science (submittedVersion, cc-by-nd)
- Funders
- National Institutes of Health (R01 GM088477)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Social and Intergroup Psychology
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Racial and Ethnic Identity Research
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Names, Identity, and Discrimination Research
- Keywords
- prejudice reduction, unintentional discrimination, long-term intervention effects
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
A language model drew the claims from the paper on 2026-10-09, under version 3 of the claim definition (model deepseek-v4.1-flash, prompt extract-v3).
A second model labelled each claim on 2026-10-09 (model jev-1.13-20260917, definition revision gold-guideline-v0.2).
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
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