Is spirituality a component of wisdom? Study of 1,786 adults using expanded San Diego Wisdom Scale (Jeste-Thomas Wisdom Index)
Open accessAbstract
Objective Wisdom has gained increasing interest among researchers as a personality trait relevant to well-being and mental health. We previously reported development of a new 24-item San Diego Wisdom Scale (SD-WISE), with good to excellent psychometric properties, comprised of six subscales: pro-social behaviors, emotional regulation, self-reflection (insight), tolerance for divergent values (acceptance of uncertainty), decisiveness, and social advising. There is controversy about whether spirituality is a marker of wisdom. The present cross-sectional study sought to address that question by developing a new SD-WISE subscale of spirituality and examining its associations with various relevant measures.Methods Data were collected from a national-level sample of 1,786 community-dwelling adults age 20-82 years, as part of an Amazon M-Turk cohort. Participants completed the 24-item SD-WISE along with several subscales of a commonly used Brief Multidimensional Measure of Religiousness/Spirituality, along with validated scales for well-being, resilience, happiness, depression, anxiety, loneliness, and social network.Results Using latent variable models, we developed a Spirituality subscale, which demonstrated acceptable psychometric properties including a unidimensional factor structure and good reliability. Spirituality correlated positively with age and was higher in women than in men. The expanded 28-item, 7-subscale SD-WISE total score (called the Jeste-Thomas Wisdom Index or JTWI) demonstrated acceptable psychometric properties. The Spirituality subscale was positively correlated with good mental health and well-being, and negatively correlated with poor mental health. However, compared to other components of wisdom, the Spirituality factor showed weaker (i.e., small-to-medium vs. medium-to-large) association with the SD-WISE higher-order Wisdom factor (JTWI).Conclusion Similar to other components as well as overall wisdom, spirituality is significantly associated with better mental health and well-being, and may add to the predictive utility of the total wisdom score. Spirituality is, however, a weaker contributor to overall wisdom than components like pro-social behaviors and emotional regulation. Longitudinal studies of larger and more diverse samples are needed to explore mediation effects of these constructs on well-being and health.
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Among older adults, wisdom is associated with life satisfaction, subjective well-being, and greater resilience.
“Amongst older adults, numerous investigations have demonstrated that wisdom is associated with life satisfaction, subjective well‐being, and greater resilience29, 30.”
From Mental health care for older adults: recent advances and new directions in clinical practice and research (2022) · cites this paper as [30]
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Transforming artificial intelligence into artificial wisdom
Jeste, D. V., Paulus, M. P., Alexopoulos, G. S., Barnard, M., Otte, W. M., Satake, Y., Na, P. J., Torous, J. B., Prodan, A., & Occhipinti, J. (2026) · Nature Mental Health · doi:10.1038/s44220-026-00640-6 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Self-citationThe relationship between self-reflection and mental health: a meta-analysis review
He, W., & Gan, J. (2025) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-025-07415-9 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Ardelt, M., Kim, J. J., & Ferrari, M. (2023) · Journal of Happiness Studies · doi:10.1007/s10902-023-00637-3 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Aesthetic Experience and the Ability to Integrate Beauty: The Mediating Effect of Spirituality
Świątek, A. H., Szczęśniak, M., Borkowska, H., Bojdo, W., & Myszak, U. Z. (2023) · Psychology Research and Behavior Management · doi:10.2147/prbm.s423513 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Resting state default mode network is associated with wise advising
Hu, C., Zheng, Y., Dong, G.-H., Glassman, H., Huang, C., & Xuan, R. (2023) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-023-41408-7 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Lavretsky, H., Khalsa, S. S., Oughli, H. A., Ibáñez, A. M., Cruzat, J. C., Edwards, E., NEWHOUSE, P. A., Bassetti, C. L., Bègue, I., Winkler, A. S., et al. (2026) · Neuropsychopharmacology · doi:10.1038/s41386-026-02332-2 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Self-citationWisdom in healthy aging research: starting from measurement
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Buddhism and Its Contribution to Positive Psychology
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Psychometric validation of Indian adaptation of the San-Diego Wisdom Scale (SD-WISE-28)
Dewangan, R. L., Pathaka, S., Jeste, D. V., & Thomas, M. L. (2024) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-024-06133-y · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Self-citationThe relationship among openness, wisdom, and humor: a preliminary mediation model
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Going Beyond Ourselves: The Role of Self-Transcendent Experiences in WisdomPreprint
Kim, Y., Nusbaum, H. C., & Yang, F. (2022) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/dpqjx · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Spirituality: Relationship with Religion, Health, Wisdom, and Positive Psychiatry
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Self-citationJeste, D. V., & Gyan, E. (2026) · American Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.20260402 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Self-citationWisdom-related attitudes in psychosomatic patients and in a convenience sample
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Wisdom partially mediates the relationship between spirituality and eudaimonic well-being
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The protective role of Wisdom in Suicidal behavior: evidence from Indian adults
Dewangan, R. L., Gupta, S., Jeste, D. V., Longkumer, I., & Pathak, S. (2025) · BMC Psychology · doi:10.1186/s40359-025-03526-x · Cited by 1 · see citing works
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Pathways to well-being in Germany: a systematic review of positive psychosocial factors
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Spirituality and Mindful Tourism: Experiencing Innovative Hispanic Cases
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Jailani, M. (2021) · Islam Realitas Journal of Islamic & Social Studies · doi:10.30983/islam_realitas.v7i2.4817
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Gender-Oriented Analysis of Witchcraft Discourse in Social Media
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An Eastern Conception of Wisdom: Representation from Indian SamplePreprint
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Time perspectives and wisdom during zero-COVID: the boundary effect of emotions
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THE THEOLOGY OF SPIRITUALITY OF THE CHRISTIAN TEACHER FOR THE EFFECTIVENESS OF THEIR MINISTRY
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Trying to Plant the Seeds of Transformational Wisdom in a University Class: Successes and Challenges
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Psychological richness and wisdom among Filipino university students
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- Authors
- Jeste, D. V., Thomas, M. L., Liu, J., Daly, R. E., Tu, X. M., Treichler, E. B. H., Palmer, B. W., & Lee, E. E.
- Affiliations
- University of California San Diego (US)
- Colorado State University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Jeste, Dilip V.
- ORCID
- Venue
- Journal of Psychiatric Research
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2021-01
- Volume
- 132
- Pages
- 174-181
- ISSN
- 0022-3956 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC7736537
- OpenAlex
- W3090233265
- Cited by
- 50
- References
- 87
- Citations by year
- 2026: 9 · 2025: 7 · 2024: 10 · 2023: 6 · 2022: 12 · 2021: 6
- FWCI
- 3.32
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Journal of Psychiatric Research (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- eScholarship (California Digital Library) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- Sam and Rose Stein Institute for Research on Aging
- National Institute of Mental Health
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Health › Religion, Spirituality, and Psychology
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Neuropsychology and Physiological Psychology › Aging and Gerontology Research
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Psychological Well-being and Life Satisfaction
- Keywords
- wisdom, spirituality, mental health, well-being, resilience, loneliness, depression, anxiety, prosocial behavior, emotion regulation, self-reflection, gender differences, age differences
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Aged, Aged, 80 and over, Cross-Sectional Studies, Female, Humans, Loneliness, Male, Middle Aged, Psychometrics, Reproducibility of Results, Spirituality, Young Adult
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