Extra-adrenal glucocorticoid synthesis: immune regulation and aspects on local organ homeostasis
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Systemic glucocorticoids (GCs) mainly originate from de novo synthesis in the adrenal cortex under the control of the hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal (HPA)-axis. However, research during the last 1-2 decades has revealed that additional organs express the necessary enzymes and have the capacity for de novo synthesis of biologically active GCs. This includes the thymus, intestine, skin and the brain. Recent research has also revealed that locally synthesized GCs most likely act in a paracrine or autocrine manner and have significant physiological roles in local homeostasis, cell development and immune cell activation. In this review, we summarize the nature, regulation and known physiological roles of extra-adrenal GC synthesis. We specifically focus on the thymus in which GC production (by both developing thymocytes and epithelial cells) has a role in the maintenance of proper immunological function.
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Extra-adrenal glucocorticoid production occurs in the gut and other tissues, and these glucocorticoids regulate local homeostasis, cell development, and immune activation.
“Extra-adrenal glucocorticoid production is known to occur in the gut and other tissues, and these glucocorticoids play a highly specific role in regulating local homeostasis, cell development, and immune activation (522–526).”
From Signalling cognition: The gut microbiota and hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis (2023) · cites this paper as [526]
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Mugari, M. (2015) · SUNScholar (Stellenbosch University)
- Authors
- Talabér, G., Jondal, M., & Okret, S.
- Affiliations
- Karolinska Institutet (SE)
- Corresponding author
- Okret, Sam
- Venue
- Molecular and Cellular Endocrinology
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2013-11
- Volume
- 380
- Issue
- 1-2
- Pages
- 89-98
- ISSN
- 0303-7207 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2035638871
- Cited by
- 80
- References
- 111
- Citations by year
- 2026: 3 · 2025: 1 · 2024: 2 · 2023: 7 · 2022: 5 · 2021: 13 · 2020: 11 · 2019: 8 · 2018: 5 · 2017: 9 · 2016: 7 · 2015: 4 · 2014: 3 · 2012: 1
- FWCI
- 3.67
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- zenodo.org
- Licence
- other-oa
- Locations
- Molecular and Cellular Endocrinology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Zenodo (CERN European Organization for Nuclear Research) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- Funders
- European Commission
- Cancerfonden
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism › Adrenal Hormones and Disorders
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Behavioral Neuroscience › Stress Responses and Cortisol
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Genetics › Estrogen and related hormone effects
- Keywords
- thymus, thymocytes, thymic epithelial cells, immune regulation, hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis, glucocorticoid receptor
- MeSH terms
- Adrenal Glands, Animals, Brain, Cardiovascular System, Epithelium, Glucocorticoids, Homeostasis, Humans, Intestinal Mucosa, Intestines, Lung, Skin, Thymus Gland
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