Novel insights into the molecular mechanisms underlying generalized glucocorticoid resistance and hypersensitivity syndromes
Open accessAbstract
Glucocorticoids play a fundamental role in many physiologic functions and contribute substantially to the achievement of homeostasis. These pleiotropic glucocorticoid actions are mediated by a ubiquitously expressed transcription factor, the human glucocorticoid receptor (hGR), which may influence the transcription rate of numerous target genes, interact with other transcription factors, trigger the activation of several kinase pathways or modulate mitochondrial DNA expression. Any genetic defects in the NR3C1gene that encodes the hGR may cause Primary Generalized Glucocorticoid Resistance or Hypersensitivity Syndromes, two rare allostatic endocrinologic conditions characterized by partial impaired tissue sensitivity to glucocorticoids. However, there are patients who present with clinical manifestations suggestive of the above syndromes and do not harbor an inactivating or activating point mutation, insertion or deletion in the NR3C1gene. In these cases, several other factors might influence the glucocorticoid signal transduction. In this review, we discuss the numerous glucocorticoid functions and the multiple hGR isoforms, we present the genomic, nongenomic and mitochondrial glucocorticoid signaling cascade and we summarize the clinical manifestations and pathogenesis of Primary Generalized Glucocorticoid Resistance or Hypersensitivity Syndromes. Finally, we speculate that the next generation sequencing technologies will undoubtedly enable us to gain a deeper understanding of the GR "interactome".
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Nicolaides, N. C., Lamprokostopoulou, A., Sertedaki, A., & Charmandari, E. (2016) · HORMONES · doi:10.14310/horm.2002.1660 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
Self-citationQ&A: Primary generalized glucocorticoid resistance
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Self-citationFunctional characterization of the hGRαT556I causing Chrousos syndrome
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Nicolaides, N. C., Kino, T., Roberts, M. L., Katsantoni, E. Z., Sertedaki, A., Moutsatsou, P., Psarra, A. G., Chrousos, G. P., & Charmandari, E. (2017) · PubMed · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Self-citationGlucocorticoid resistance syndrome caused by two novel mutations in the NR3C1 gene
Velayos, T., Grau, G., Rica, I., de Nanclares, G. P., & Gaztambide, S. (2016) · Endocrinología y Nutrición · doi:10.1016/j.endonu.2016.03.010 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
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Self-citationCoexistence of Glucocorticoid Resistance and Pseudohypoparathyroidism
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Ultradian Corticosterone Secretion Is Maintained in the Absence of Circadian Cues.
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Adrenal Steroid Hormone Secretion
Nicolaides, N. C., Charmandari, E., & Chrousos, G. P. (2014) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-801238-3.00100-8 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Self-citationGlucocorticoid resistance syndrome caused by two novel mutations in the NR3C1 gene
Velayos, T., Grau, G., Rica, I., de Nanclares, G. P., & Gaztambide, S. (2016) · Endocrinología y Nutrición (English Edition) · doi:10.1016/j.endoen.2016.09.001 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
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A General Introduction to Glucocorticoid Biology
Timmermans, S., Souffriau, J., & Libert, C. (2019) · Frontiers in Immunology · doi:10.3389/fimmu.2019.01545 · Cited by 619 · see citing works
“GCR can either be inherited, mostly via mutations in the NR3C1 gene (52, 164), or acquired (165).”
BackgroundWhy do some asthma patients respond poorly to glucocorticoid therapy?
Henderson, I. L., Caiazzo, E., McSharry, C. P., Guzik, T. J., & Maffia, P. (2020) · Pharmacological Research · doi:10.1016/j.phrs.2020.105189 · Cited by 121 · see citing works
“Inherited genetic mutations specifically associated with refractory asthma remain poorly described [33].”
Pathophysiology of Glucocorticoid Signaling
Vitellius, G., Trabado, S., Bouligand, J., Delemer, B., & Lombès, M. (2018) · Annales d Endocrinologie · doi:10.1016/j.ando.2018.03.001 · Cited by 102 · see citing works
Meduri, G. U., & Chrousos, G. P. (2020) · Frontiers in Endocrinology · doi:10.3389/fendo.2020.00161 · Cited by 77 · see citing works
“In a time and concentrationdependent manner, GCs increase the expression of mSVCT2, facilitating the uptake of vitamin C into cells (274), providing the rationale for combination treatment using GCs and ascorbic acid (275).”
BackgroundInfluentialSevilla, L. M., Jiménez‐Panizo, A., Alegre‐Martí, A., Estébanez‐Perpiñá, E., Caelles, C., & Pérez, P. (2021) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms221810049 · Cited by 72 · see citing works
“The DNA-binding domain (DBD) is highly conserved among NR family members, and contains two zinc finger motifs that allow GR to recognize and bind to GREs (Figure 1C) as well as a nuclear localization signal (NLS)1.”
BackgroundInfluentialPrimary Generalized Glucocorticoid Resistance and Hypersensitivity Syndromes: A 2021 Update
Nicolaides, N. C., & Charmandari, E. (2021) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms221910839 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
“inverted U—shaped activity-effect curve [8,40,41].”
BackgroundInfluentialSelf-citationSomvanshi, P. R., Mellon, S. H., Yehuda, R., Flory, J. D., Makotkine, I., Bierer, L., Marmar, C., Jett, M., & Doyle, F. J. (2020) · American Journal of Physiology-Endocrinology and Metabolism · doi:10.1152/ajpendo.00398.2019 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
Adrenocortical hyperplasia: A multifaceted disease
Bourdeau, I., Parisien-La Salle, S., & Lacroix, A. (2020) · Best Practice & Research Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism · doi:10.1016/j.beem.2020.101386 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
Glucocorticoid signaling and osteoarthritis.
Savvidou, O., Milonaki, M., Goumenos, S., Flevas, D., Papagelopoulos, P., & Moutsatsou, P. (2019) · Molecular and Cellular Endocrinology · doi:10.1016/j.mce.2018.11.001 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
GR Dimerization and the Impact of GR Dimerization on GR Protein Stability and Half-Life
Louw, A. (2019) · Frontiers in Immunology · doi:10.3389/fimmu.2019.01693 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
“Glucocorticoid-Induced Resistance Glucocorticoid resistance is characterized by impaired sensitivity to glucocorticoid treatment and may be inherited (136) or acquired, which is more common and may result from disease progression or chronic high-dose glucocorticoid treatment (5, 91).”
BackgroundSomvanshi, P. R., Mellon, S. H., Flory, J. D., Abu-Amara, D., PTSD Systems Biology Consortium;, Wolkowitz, O. M., Yehuda, R., Jett, M., Hood, L., Marmar, C., et al. (2019) · American Journal of Physiology-Endocrinology and Metabolism · doi:10.1152/ajpendo.00065.2019 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
Jiménez‐Panizo, A., Pérez, P., Rojas, A. M., Fuentes‐Prior, P., & Estébanez‐Perpiñá, E. (2019) · Endocrine Related Cancer · doi:10.1530/erc-19-0132 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
Glucocorticoid Receptor Mutations and Hypersensitivity to Endogenous and Exogenous Glucocorticoids
Santen, R. J., Jewell, C. M., Yue, W., Heitjan, D. F., Raff, H., Katen, K. S., & Cidlowski, J. A. (2018) · The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism · doi:10.1210/jc.2018-00352 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Пос ттравматичний стресовий розлад, метаболічний синдром і вег етативна нервова система
Serhiyenko, V. A., Sehin, V. B., Serhiyenko, L. M., & Serhiyenko, A. A. (2023) · Endokrynologia · doi:10.31793/1680-1466.2023.28-4.377 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
Glucocorticoid therapy for acute respiratory distress syndrome: Current concepts
Zhao, Y., Yao, Z., Xu, S., Yao, L., & Yu, Z. (2024) · Journal of Intensive Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.jointm.2024.02.002 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
“[ 171 ] Since patients with severe sepsis and septic shock have blunted adrenal functions, low-dose GCs as an adjuvant therapy have become the standard treatment.”
MethodMuráni, E., Trakooljul, N., Hadlich, F., Ponsuksili, S., & Wimmers, K. (2019) · Frontiers in Genetics · doi:10.3389/fgene.2019.00559 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
“Different from GR deficiency or resistance, GR hypersensitivity has not been well researched yet (Nicolaides and Charmandari, 2017).”
BackgroundThe human glucocorticoid receptor
Nicolaides, N. C., & Chrousos, G. P. (2023) · Vitamins and hormones · doi:10.1016/bs.vh.2023.06.005 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Self-citationSingle-Gene Congenic Strain Reveals the Effect of Zbtb16 on Dexamethasone-Induced Insulin Resistance
Krupková, M., Liška, F., Kazdová, L., Šedová, L., Kábelová, A., Krenová, D., Křen, V., & Šeda, O. (2018) · Frontiers in Endocrinology · doi:10.3389/fendo.2018.00185 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Nicolaides, N. C., Charmandari, E., & Chrousos, G. P. (2018) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-801238-3.95740-4 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Self-citationResearch progress of glucocorticoid resistance in chronic rhinosinusitis with nasal polyps: A review
Chen, L., Fan, X., Li-na, Y., Han, L., Wang, N., & Bian, K. (2023) · Medicine · doi:10.1097/md.0000000000036024 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
“…the heterogeneity of the GR library and the diversity of GC signal transduction, ultimately influencing the sensitivity of target organs to GC. [99,100] Taking GR α as an example, it has been found that different translation starts in exon 2 lead to the production of 8 translation subtypes,…”
BackgroundNicolaides, N. C., & Chrousos, G. P. (2018) · European Journal of Endocrinology · doi:10.1530/eje-18-0471 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Self-citationSteroids and Sepsis: the Debate Continues
Ramanan, M., Cohen, J., & Venkatesh, B. (2019) · International Anesthesiology Clinics · doi:10.1097/aia.0000000000000220 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Rudzki, S. J. (2022) · Military Medicine · doi:10.1093/milmed/usac095 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Meduri, G. U., & Chrousos, G. P. (2023) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-817558-3.00012-3 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Nicolaides, N. C., & Chrousos, G. P. (2019) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-813814-4.00028-6 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Self-citationNicolaides, N. C., Ioannidi, M.-K., Koniari, E., Papageorgiou, I., Bartzeliotou, Α., Sertedaki, A., Klapa, M. I., & Charmandari, E. (2021) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu13062120 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
“Specific polymorphisms or genetic defects in the NR3C1 gene, which encodes the human glucocorticoid receptor (hGR), account for certain clinical phenotypes associated with glucocorticoid resistance or hypersensitivity [4,8,9].”
BackgroundSelf-citationMeduri, G. U., Psarra, A. G., Amrein, K., & Chrousos, G. P. (2023) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-817558-3.00022-6 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Prolonged glucocorticoid treatment in ARDS: Pathobiological rationale and pharmacological principles
Meduri, G. U., Confalonieri, M., Chaudhuri, D., Rochwerg, B. N., & Meibohm, B. (2023) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-817558-3.00019-6 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Yu, H.-J., Park, H., Lee, B., & Hahm, D. (2025) · Journal of Immunology Research · doi:10.1155/jimr/5517840 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
“…through these rapid pathways, suppressing proin fl am-matory cytokine production (IL-1 β , IL-6, TNF-α , and IFN-γ ), inhibiting Th1 and Th17 differentiation, and promoting antiin-fl ammatory mediators such as IL-10, IL-1 receptor antagonists, neutral endopeptidases, and lipocortin-1 [21 – 23].”
Meduri, G. U. (2025) · Seminars in Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine · doi:10.1055/a-2691-6148 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
“The evolutionary conservation of these mechanisms under-scores their importance for stress survival and reveals vulnerabilities when dysregulated, as seen in critical illness.”
Primary Generalized Glucocorticoid Hypersensitivity Treated with Mifepristone: A Case Report
Liu, Y., Han, M., Yang, J., Xu, Q., Xu, L., Ren, Y., Xiang, C.-Y., Liu, Z., & Zhang, Y. (2020) · International Journal of General Medicine · doi:10.2147/ijgm.s273969 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
“Previous studies have introduced a groundbreaking concept, which showed that patients with PGGH may harbored GR mutations.(1,2,13,14) We conducted firstgeneration sequencing assessment, however, no positive outcome was obtained.”
BackgroundInfluentialZhao, X., Xu, Z., Su, H., Zheng, R., Zhan, M., Huang, Y., & Su, Z. (2022) · BMC Pediatrics · doi:10.1186/s12887-022-03722-3 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“75-yearold girl with PGGH were treated with mifepristone, and their symptoms were improved [5, 22].”
BackgroundMeduri, G. U. (2025) · Seminars in Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine · doi:10.1055/a-2691-6206 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Nicolaides, N. C., & Charmandari, E. (2021) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-62011-0_36 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Self-citationAdrenal Insufficiency: Etiology and Diagnosis
Nicolaides, N. C., & Charmandari, E. (2018) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-801238-3.99423-6 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Self-citationAngot, L., Schneider, P., Vannier, J., & Abdoul‐Azize, S. (2023) · Cancers · doi:10.3390/cancers15102812 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“Resistance can either be inherited, mostly via mutations [30] in the GR, NR3C1 gene [31] or other loss-offunctions mutations in the GR [32,33].”
BackgroundMEDICINE AND PSYCHOLOGY: MODERN PROBLEMS, NEW TECHNOLOGIES AND WAYS OF DEVELOPING OUTDATED THEORIES
Vladlenov, D., Mezhiievska, I. A., Maslovskyi, V., Pavlov, S. V., Razmadze, M., Samkharadze, R., Gachechiladze, L., Razmadze, D., Тащук, В. К., Khrebtii, H. I., et al. (2024) · Іnternational Science Group eBooks · doi:10.46299/isg.2024.mono.med.1 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Endocrine hypertension: discovering the inherited causes
Assadi, F. K., Hooman, N., Mazaheri, M., & Sharbaf, F. G. (2023) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-323-96120-2.00001-7 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Meduri, G. U., & Chrousos, G. P. (2020) · Vide Leaf, Hyderabad eBooks · doi:10.37247/paendo.1.2020.10 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Mitochondrial Hormone Receptors - an Emerging Field of Signaling in the Cell’s Powerhouse
Hardeland, R. (2017) · Biomedical Journal of Scientific & Technical Research · doi:10.26717/bjstr.2017.01.000511 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“Meanwhile, several investigations have demonstrated GR translocation to mitochondria [1-5], a process that depends on glucocorticoid availability [1-5] and on a mechanism reminiscent of the transfer into the nucleus, also involving heat shock proteins and an immunophilin [4].”
BackgroundLei, J., Wang, Y., Song, Y., Peng, C. X., Wu, Z., Xiong, Y., He, F., Luo, T., Yu, F., Xu, Y., et al. (2025) · Endocrine · doi:10.1007/s12020-025-04280-1 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“The clinical manifestations of the disease differ in severity and variety, including hypertension, hypokalemia, adrenal incidentaloma, acne, hirsutism, menstrual irregularities, precocious pubarche, female infertility, fatigue and anxiety [5 – 7 , 11].”
Zhang, Z., Feng, Y., Cao, Y., Chen, Y., & Li, F. (2021) · AACE Clinical Case Reports · doi:10.1016/j.aace.2021.06.010 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Gonadotrophin-Independent Precocious Puberty; Female and Male
Drop, S. L. S., & der Grinten, H. L. C. (2018) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-801238-3.11101-8
Glucocorticoid Resistance Syndromes and States
Nicolaides, N. C., & Chrousos, G. P. (2018) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-801238-3.95741-6
Self-citationCORTICORESISTANCE SYNDROME IN CRITICAL ILLNESS: A GIVEN OR A GUIDE TO ACTION?
Altshuler, N. Е., Kutcyi, M. B., Bakharev, S. А., Kvasnikov, A. M., & Попугаев, К. А. (2024) · Zabajkalʹskij medicinskij vestnik · doi:10.52485/19986173_2024_1_1
Nicolaides, N. C., Charmandari, E., & Chrousos, G. P. (2025) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-443-13825-6.00219-3
Self-citationGlucocorticoid resistance syndromes and states
Nicolaides, N. C., & Chrousos, G. P. (2026) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-443-13825-6.00252-1
Self-citationResearch Progress in the Pathogenesis of Severe Asthma
甘, 唐. (2026) · Advances in Clinical Medicine · doi:10.12677/acm.2026.1641635
Gan, T., Fu, Z., & Niu, C. (2026) · Pediatric Discovery · doi:10.1002/pdi3.70056
“Overexpression of various immune and inflammatory mediators, such as IL‐2, IL‐4, and IL‐13, is involved in the development of glucocorticoid resistance and severe asthma [59–61].”
- Authors
- Nicolaides, N. C., & Charmandari, E.
- Affiliations
- National and Kapodistrian University of Athens (GR)
- Venue
- Hormones
- Published
- 2017-04
- Volume
- 16
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 124-138
- ISSN
- 1109-3099 (ISSN-L)
- 2520-8721
- OpenAlex
- W2744459261
- Semantic Scholar
- bee5b94cd8c1aa26225315823835d2d684d152ff
- Cited by
- 52
- References
- 114
- Citations by year
- 2026: 3 · 2025: 5 · 2024: 3 · 2023: 8 · 2022: 2 · 2021: 5 · 2020: 8 · 2019: 8 · 2018: 9 · 2017: 1
- FWCI
- 1.03
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- HORMONES (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- European Commission
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism › Adrenal Hormones and Disorders
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Genetics › Estrogen and related hormone effects
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Molecular Biology › Sexual Differentiation and Disorders
- Keywords
- glucocorticoid resistance, glucocorticoid hypersensitivity, glucocorticoid receptor, NR3C1 gene, glucocorticoid signaling
- MeSH terms
- Glucocorticoids, Humans, Hypersensitivity, Receptors, Glucocorticoid, Syndrome, Signal Transduction
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