Cited by 391Misinformation and Its ImpactsClimate Change Communication and PerceptionParanormal Experiences and Beliefs

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The conspiracy-effect: Exposure to conspiracy theories (about global warming) decreases pro-social behavior and science acceptance

van der Linden, Sander·2015·Personality and Individual Differences

DOI 10.1016/j.paid.2015.07.045

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Amazon's Mechanical Turk: A New Source of Inexpensive, Yet High-Quality, Data?
Buhrmester, M., Kwang, T., & Gosling, S. D. (2011) · Perspectives on Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/1745691610393980 · Cited by 9,996
Conducting behavioral research on Amazon’s Mechanical Turk
Mason, W., & Suri, S. (2012) · Behavior Research Methods · doi:10.3758/s13428-011-0124-6 · Cited by 3,172
Quantifying the consensus on anthropogenic global warming in the scientific literature
Cook, J., Nuccitelli, D., Green, S., Richardson, M., Winkler, B., Painting, R., Way, R. G., Jacobs, P., & Skuce, A. G. (2013) · Environmental Research Letters · doi:10.1088/1748-9326/8/2/024024 · Cited by 1,518
The Effects of Anti-Vaccine Conspiracy Theories on Vaccination Intentions
Jolley, D., & Douglas, K. M. (2014) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0089177 · Cited by 1,232 · cited 2×
“For example, recent research has shown that reading information about specific conspiracy theories can decrease people's intention to vote and vaccinate (Jolley & Douglas, 2014).”
Result
Belief in conspiracy theories
Goertzel, T. (1994) · Political Psychology · doi:10.2307/3791630 · Cited by 1,094 · cited 1×
“For example, a number of recent studies have revealed that belief in one conspiracy is highly predictive of belief in other conspiracies (Goertzel, 1994; Swami et al., 2011).”
Result
Conspiracy theories: Causes and cures
Sunstein, C. R., & Vermeule, A. (2009) · Journal of Political Philosophy · doi:10.1111/j.1467-9760.2008.00325.x · Cited by 1,050 · cited 1×
“Indeed , while some conspiracy theories are merely false, others are based on beliefs that are not only false but also harmful (Maibach, 2012; Sunstein & Vermeule, 2009).”
Background
The Role of Conspiracist Ideation and Worldviews in Predicting Rejection of Science
Lewandowsky, S., Gignac, G. E., & Oberauer, K. (2013) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0075637 · Cited by 693
Conspiracy Theories and the Paranoid Style(s) of Mass Opinion
Oliver, J., & Wood, T. (2014) · American Journal of Political Science · doi:10.1111/ajps.12084 · Cited by 689
The scientific consensus on climate change as a gateway belief: experimental evidence
van der Linden, S. L., Leiserowitz, A. A., Feinberg, G. D., & Maibach, E. W. (2015) · PLOS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0118489 · Cited by 661
Dead and Alive: Beliefs in Contradictory Conspiracy Theories
Wood, M. J., Douglas, K. M., & Sutton, R. M. (2012) · Social Psychological and Personality Science · doi:10.1177/1948550611434786 · Cited by 660

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Fake News and Social Media Censorship
Adetayo, A. J. (2021) · Advances in educational technologies and instructional design book series · doi:10.4018/978-1-7998-6474-5.ch004 · Cited by 10
Are rules made to be broken? Conspiracy exposure promotes aggressive behavior
Poon, K., Chan, R. S. W., & Lai, H. (2023) · Political Psychology · doi:10.1111/pops.12947 · Cited by 11
In Whose Hands the Future?
Lewandowsky, S. (2018) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190844073.003.0010 · Cited by 12
Investigating Memorization of Conspiracy Theories in Text Generation
Levy, S., Saxon, M., & Wang, W. Y. (2021) · Findings of the Association for Computational Linguistics: ACL (Findings of ACL) · doi:10.18653/v1/2021.findings-acl.416 · Cited by 18
Expectations about the “Natural Order of Things” and Conspiracy Beliefs about COVID-19
Giacomantonio, M., Pellegrini, V., Cristofaro, V. D., Brasini, M., & Mancini, F. (2022) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph19159499 · Cited by 10
Gegen die Öffentlichkeit
Schwaiger, L. (2022) · transcript Verlag eBooks · doi:10.14361/9783839461211 · Cited by 56
Почему важна демография
Dorling, D., & Gietel‐Basten, S. (2022) · Journal of Economic Sociology · doi:10.17323/1726-3247-2022-2-36-64 · Cited by 8
When do conspiracy theories shape behavioural intentions? The moderating role of the need to evaluate
Mang, V., Epstude, K., & Fennis, B. M. (2023) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2023.112481 · Cited by 11
The effect of scientific conspiracy theories on scepticism towards biotechnologies
Marques, M. D., Kerr, J. R., Stukas, A. A., & McLennan, J. (2024) · Public Understanding of Science · doi:10.1177/09636625241300896 · Cited by 9
“…emphasising the vested interests of corporations associated with emissions reduction decreased the strength of their belief in anthropogenic climate change (van der Linden, 2015), especially when it involved an unfamiliar (and controversial) technology such as carbon capture (Bolsen et al., 2022).”
Influential
Belief in Science‐Related Conspiracy Theories
Littrell, S., Diekman, A. B., Seelig, M. I., Premaratne, K., Wuchty, S., Verdear, D., Klofstad, C., & Uscinski, J. E. (2025) · Journal of Social Issues · doi:10.1111/josi.70004 · Cited by 14
Future Actions towards Climate Change: The Role of Threat Perception and Emotions
Aguilar‐Luzón, M. D. C., Carmona, B., & Loureiro, A. (2023) · European Journal of Sustainable Development · doi:10.14207/ejsd.2023.v12n4p379 · Cited by 9
The Conspiratorial Style in Turkish Politics
Nefes, T. S. (2018) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190844073.003.0026 · Cited by 9
Conspiracy Thinking, Tolerance, and Democracy
Smallpage, S. M. (2018) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190844073.003.0012 · Cited by 9
Do you believe what you have been told? Morality and scientific literacy as predictors of pseudoscience susceptibility
Piejka, A., & Okruszek, Ł. (2020) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.3687 · Cited by 15
The Information Ecosystem of Conspiracy Theory: Examining the QAnon Narrative on FacebookPreprint
Kim, S., & Kim, J. (2021) · OSF Preprints (OSF Preprints) · doi:10.31219/osf.io/wku5b · Cited by 10
«3D-модель» российской экономики
Chepurenko, A. Y. (2022) · Journal of Economic Sociology · doi:10.17323/1726-3247-2022-2-118-128 · Cited by 8
Assessing Conspiracist Ideation Reliably, Validly, and Efficiently: A Psychometric Comparison of Five Short-Form Measures
Kay, C. S., & Slovic, P. (2025) · Assessment (Odessa, Fla.) · doi:10.1177/10731911251319933 · Cited by 7
“…are less likely to vote (Butler et al., 1995), vaccinate (Jolley & Douglas, 2014), and engage in behaviors intended to combat climate change (Van der Linden, 2015), as well as being more likely to harbor prejudicial beliefs (Kay, 2024a; Sapountzis & Condor, 2013) and hold favorable…”
A meta-analytic structural equation analysis of the Gateway Belief Model: highlighting scientific consensus increases support for public action on climate change
Rode, J. B., Remshard, M., Groot, L. J., & van der Linden, S. (2025) · Current Opinion in Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.cobeha.2025.101521 · Cited by 9
“Against this backdrop of overwhelming scientific agreement, the politicization of climate science [3,4] and the spread of climate disinformation have contributed to significant skepticism and confusion among the general public about this issue [5–7].”
The boycott of Chinese outbound tourists: the influence of the conspiracy theory on human trafficking in Thailand
Lin, X., Yan, L., & Xu, J. B. (2024) · Current Issues in Tourism · doi:10.1080/13683500.2024.2323163 · Cited by 8
“Previous research has suggested that exposing respondents to conspiracy theories depicted in a questionnaire is sufficient to investigate their perspectives (Kim & Cao, 2016; van der Linden, 2015).”
Climate Change and Hybrid Warfare Strategies
Briggs, C. M. (2020) · Journal of Strategic Security · doi:10.5038/1944-0472.13.4.1864 · Cited by 8
Examining conspiracy beliefs and COVID-19 in four countries: The role of disgust towards the political system and implications for prosocial behavior
Moon, C., & Travaglino, G. A. (2021) · Journal of Pacific Rim Psychology · doi:10.1177/18344909211056855 · Cited by 12
“In the context of global warming, Van der Linden (2015) showed that briefly exposing the public to a conspiracy theory may reduce general prosocial tendencies (e.g., donate or volunteer for a charity).”
Background
Examining the Role of COVID-19 Conspiracy Beliefs in Predicting Vaccination Intentions, Preventive Behavior and Willingness to Share Opinions about the Coronavirus
Zelič, Ž., Berič, M., & Grum, D. K. (2022) · Studia Psychologica · doi:10.31577/sp.2022.01.844 · Cited by 10
Instrument evaluation of conspiracy theory about COVID-19: Exploratory factor analysis and confirmatory factor analysis
Fauzi, A., Saefi, M., Adi, W. C., Kristiana, E., & Lestariani, N. (2022) · International Journal of Evaluation and Research in Education (IJERE) · doi:10.11591/ijere.v11i2.22339 · Cited by 11
Supporting Vaccination on TikTok During the COVID-19 Pandemic: Vaccine Beliefs, Emotions, and Comments
Wang, X., & He, R. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.938377 · Cited by 8
“It also increases the likelihood of accepting misleading claims (MacFarlane et al., 2020), resisting scientiﬁc evidence, or making associated poor health choices (van der Linden, 2015).”
Background
The Truth Is Around Here Somewhere
Bost, P. R. (2018) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190844073.003.0018 · Cited by 8
Why the Powerful (in Weak States) Prefer Conspiracy Theories
Radnitz, S. (2018) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190844073.003.0023 · Cited by 8
Systematic review raises doubts about the effectiveness of framing in climate change communicationPreprint
Fesenfeld, L., Sun, Y., Wicki, M., McGrath, L. F., & Bernauer, T. (2021) · Research Square · doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-445613/v1 · Cited by 8
Acceptance and adherence to COVID-19 preventive measures are shaped predominantly by conspiracy beliefs, mistrust in science and fear - A comparison of more than 20 psychological variablesPreprint
Hartmann, M., & Müller, P. (2021) · doi:10.31124/advance.16644889.v1 · Cited by 8
How Are Conspiracy Beliefs Associated with Generosity?Preprint
Alper, S., Toribio‐Flórez, D., Douglas, K. M., & Capraro, V. (2021) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/fdyxr · Cited by 8
Stereotypes and social evaluations of scientists are related to different antecedents and outcomes
Gligorić, V., Clerc, R., Arkensteijn, G., Kleef, G. A. V., & Rutjens, B. T. (2024) · Public Understanding of Science · doi:10.1177/09636625241232097 · Cited by 7
“…and science attitudes has been well documented, so that individuals prone to conspiracy theories tend to reject scientific findings (Lewandowsky et al., 2013; Van der Linden, 2015; also see “conspirituality,” where a conspiratorial mind-set is merged with spirituality, Halafoff et al., 2022).”
Background
Conspiracy Beliefs, Secondary Risk Perceptions, and Conditional Acceptance of Dengue Vaccine: A Multigroup Comparison Based on Prior COVID-19 Vaccination Experiences
Ou, M., & Ho, S. S. (2025) · Health Communication · doi:10.1080/10410236.2025.2539462 · Cited by 7
“For instance, individuals with stronger conspiracy beliefs have been shown to perceive greater risks associated with COVID-19 vaccination (Rosenthal & Cummings, 2021) and are more likely to discredit scientific evidence that challenges their views (van der Linden, 2015).”
Perceptions of Self-Motives and Environmental Activists’ Motives for Pro-Environmental Behavior
Geiger, N. (2022) · Sustainability · doi:10.3390/su141710656 · Cited by 3
“Further, as noted above, other work has revealed that many ascribe ulterior or sinister motives to environmental activists [33,39,63], which again, was not related to themes identified here.”
Background
Disapproval of Climate Policy Dismantlement: A Comparative Analysis of International Public Opinion on Donald Trump’s Withdrawal from the Paris Climate Change Regime
Kenny, J. (2023) · Journal of Comparative Policy Analysis Research and Practice · doi:10.1080/13876988.2023.2262431 · Cited by 7
“…in less democratic countries (Povitkina 2018), that autocracies more frequently utilise misinformation for shaping public opinion (Boese et al. 2022), and that consuming climate change misinformation is associated with a lower willingness to undertake climate action (Van Der Linden 2015).”
The different worlds of Google – A comparison of search results on conspiracy theories in 12 countries
von Nordheim, G., Bettels-Schwabbauer, T., Königslöw, K. K., Barczyszyn-Madziarz, P., Budivska, H., Salvo, P. D., Dingerkus, F., Guazina, L. S., Asante, K. K., Kuś, M., et al. (2023) · Convergence The International Journal of Research into New Media Technologies · doi:10.1177/13548565231203102 · Cited by 10
“…– for example, it lowers people ’ s willingness to engage in protective health behaviours (e.g. Freeman et al., 2020) or pro-environmental behaviours (Van der Linden, 2015), while leading to an increase in hatred and violence towards minorities (Pasek et al., 2015) – we consider the quality of…”
Critical Thinking and the Rejection of Unsubstantiated Claims
Bensley, D. A. (2019) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108684354.005 · Cited by 9
Populist Conspiracy Theories and Candidate Preference in the U.S.
Sawyer, P. S., & Sawyer, P. (2020) · ACTA POLITOLOGICA · doi:10.14712/1803-8220/12_2020 · Cited by 7
Can Stories Influence Sustainable Behavior?
Grant, L. K., & Forrest, M. (2020) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-45421-0_12 · Cited by 7
Attitudes towards science
(2017) · OECD economic surveys. Austria · doi:10.1787/eco_surveys-aut-2017-graph59-en · Cited by 9
Exploring Conceptualizations of COVID-19 Risk in Ideologically Distinct Online Communities: A Computational Grounded Theory Analysis
Adekunle, T. B., Foote, J., Adekunle, T. E., TeBlunthuis, N., & Nelson, L. K. (2025) · Journal of Medical Internet Research · doi:10.2196/67968 · Cited by 6
Misperceptions, Depression, and Voting for Election Deniers in the United States
Baum, M., Druckman, J. N., Ognyanova, K., & Schulman, J. (2024) · International Journal of Public Opinion Research · doi:10.1093/ijpor/edae024 · Cited by 5
“…health advice (e.g., masking, vaccination) (Jolley & Douglas, 2014; Oliver & Wood, 2014b; Romer & Jamieson, 2020), dismissing environmental threats (van der Linden, 2015), displaying hostility toward out-groups including political adversaries (Kennedy & Pronin, 2008), and supporting political…”
Background
How belief in conspiracy theories could harm sustainability
van Prooijen, J., Šrol, J., & Maglić, M. (2025) · Nature Human Behaviour · doi:10.1038/s41562-025-02243-0 · Cited by 6
“Moreover, experimentally exposing people to conspiracy theories asserting that climate change is a hoax decreases participants’ willingness to reduce their own carbon footprints (for example, use of public transport 26 ) and the likelihood of signing a petition to stop global warming 107 .”
The Information Ecosystem of Conspiracy Theory: Examining the QAnon Narrative on Facebook
Kim, S., & Kim, J. (2023) · Proceedings of the ACM on Human-Computer Interaction · doi:10.1145/3579626 · Cited by 6
“Participating in and endorsing online conspiracy theory discussions is known to lead to rejection of science, unwillingness to involve in prosocial behaviors, and even extreme offline behaviors and violence [38, 40].”
Background
The measurement and prediction of conspiracy beliefs
Rose, C. (2017) · doi:10.26686/wgtn.17060408 · Cited by 6
The gateway (mis)belief model: How misinformation impacts perceptions of scientific consensus and attitudes towards climate change
Logemann, H. T., Rode, J. B., Maertens, R., & van der Linden, S. (2025) · British Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjop.70022 · Cited by 9
“The Gateway Belief Model (GBM) developed by van der Linden et al. (2015) is a model of attitude change which emphasizes the positive impact of communicating scientific consensus, which subsequently leads to higher support for public action via key changes in corresponding cognitions and emotions…”
Influential
The Credulity of Conspiracy Theorists
Keeley, B. L. (2018) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190844073.003.0029 · Cited by 5
Determinants of Belief – And Unbelief – In Climate Change
Leiser, D., & Wagner‐Egger, P. (2022) · SpringerBriefs in climate studies · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-85322-8_3 · Cited by 5
Perceived expert and laypeople consensus predict belief in local conspiracy theories in a non-WEIRD culture: Evidence from Turkey
Alper, S., Yelbuz, B. E., & Konukoglu, K. (2023) · Judgment and Decision Making · doi:10.1017/jdm.2023.33 · Cited by 5
“…with the GBM, underestimation of scientiﬁc consensus can lead to reduced support for policies aimed at addressing human-caused climate change (Ding et al., 2011) and hinder engagement in prosocial behaviors such as signing petitions or volunteering for charitable causes (van der Linden, 2015).”
‘They are conspiring against us’: How outgroup conspiracy theories stimulate environmental neglect in intergroup resource dilemmas
Dong, Y., Yang, X., Zhang, X. J., & Jiang, J. (2024) · British Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjso.12758 · Cited by 5
Negative capacity. From a psychoanalytic notion to a democratic strategy for dealing with conspiracy theories
Fortuna, A. M. D., & Picione, R. D. L. (2024) · Rivista di Psicologia Clinica · doi:10.3280/rpc1-2024oa17985 · Cited by 5
PSYCHOLOGICAL MECHANISMS OF INFODEMIC AND PERSONAL ATTITUDES TO DISINFORMATION ABOUT COVID-19 IN SOCIAL MEDIA
Mikheev, E. A., & Нестик, Т. А. (2021) · Институт психологии Российской академии наук Социальная и экономическая психология · doi:10.38098/ipran.sep.2021.21.1.002 · Cited by 6
Using cross-disciplinary knowledge to facilitate advancements in animal communication and science communication research
Hebets, E. A., & Anderson, A. G. (2018) · Journal of Experimental Biology · doi:10.1242/jeb.179978 · Cited by 5
“Climate change/global warming, for example, is a topic for which there is much false information circulating, creating challenges for efforts to help secure our planet’s future (van der Jo u rn al o f Ex p er im en ta lB io lo g y Linden, 2015).”
Background
The Conspiracy Theory Pyramid Scheme
Goertzel, T. G. (2018) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190844073.003.0015 · Cited by 5
Don’t Trust the Scientists! Rejecting the Scientific Consensus “Conspiracy”
Josh Pasek, B. (2018) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190844073.003.0013 · Cited by 5
Social Media Misinformation About Extreme Weather Events and Climate Change
Wright, K. B. (2022) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9781119751847.ch9 · Cited by 6
Misinformation-Based Beliefs Can Have Behavioral Consequences
Ecker, U. K. H., Tay, L. Q., Spearing, E. R., van der Linden, S., & Lewandowsky, S. (2025) · Psychological Inquiry · doi:10.1080/1047840x.2025.2482348 · Cited by 4
“…2024; Neil et al., 2021; Thorley et al., 2020) or eyewitness-identification decisions (Eisen et al., 2017), preventing action on climate change (van der Linden, 2015), or fueling violent attacks (Gupta & Wilkinson, 2018; Royster, 2017) or riots (Frenkel, 2021; Holden & Smout, 2024; Lee et al.,…”
Not that different after all: Pro‐environmental social norms predict pro‐environmental behaviour (also) among those believing in conspiracy theories
Winter, K., Pummerer, L., & Sassenberg, K. (2025) · British Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjop.70030 · Cited by 5
“For instance, watching a climate change conspiracy video (compared to a pro-climate video and a neutral control condition) reduced the likelihood of study participants clicking on a link to sign a pro-environmental petition (van der Linden, 2015).”
I know It's false, but I keep thinking as if it were true: A replication study of Johnson and Seifert's (1994) continued influence effect
Laurent, V., Kosinski, T., & Rusinek, S. (2023) · Acta Psychologica · doi:10.1016/j.actpsy.2023.104094 · Cited by 4
The Appraisal Model of Conspiracy Theories (AMCT): Applying Appraisal Theories to Understand Emotional and Behavioral Reactions to Conspiracy Theories
Pummerer, L., Gkinopoulos, T., Douglas, K. M., Jolley, D., & Sassenberg, K. (2024) · Psychological Inquiry · doi:10.1080/1047840x.2024.2442906 · Cited by 8
“Such withdrawal from politics and society has also been reported in relation to conspiracy beliefs (e.g., Jolley & Douglas, 2014b; van der Linden, 2015).”
Where We Go One, We Go All: The Psychological Group as the Link between Conspiracy Beliefs, (Specific) Emotions and Collective Action
Thomas, E. F., Bird, L. H., & Quarisa, C. M. (2024) · Psychological Inquiry · doi:10.1080/1047840x.2024.2442937 · Cited by 4
“…provides evidence to suggest that there is a negative relationship between conspiracism and collective action (e.g., Jolley & Douglas, 2014; van der Linden, 2015), a positive relationship between conspiracism and collective action (e.g., Imhoff & Bruder, 2014; Thomas et al., 2024), no…”
How War-Framing Effects Differ Depending on Publics’ Conspiracy Levels: Communicating the COVID-19 Vaccination
Kim, J., Baek, J., Lee, J., & Kim, J. (2022) · American Behavioral Scientist · doi:10.1177/00027642221118283 · Cited by 3
An Examination of the Structure and Common Correlates of Three Domains of Contaminated Mindware in Adolescence and Young Adulthood
Rizeq, J. (2020) · YorkSpace (York University) · Cited by 4
With the little help of science understanding: Examining the direct and indirect role of scientific reasoning and trust in science in normative health behaviour during pandemicPreprint
Čavojová, V., Šrol, J., & Mikušková, E. B. (2021) · PsyArXiv (OSF Preprints) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/xahdj · Cited by 4
A Power-Challenging Theory of Society, or a Conservative Mindset? Upward and Downward Conspiracy Theories as Ideologically Distinct Beliefs (IN PRESS)Preprint
Nera, K., Wagner‐Egger, P., Bertin, P., Douglas, K. M., & Klein, O. (2021) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/s37vy · Cited by 4
Illusory Conduct Stigma: Organizations As Targets As Well As Participants in Conspiracy Theories
Mithani, M. A. (2024) · Business & Society · doi:10.1177/00076503241303400 · Cited by 3
“However, this has started to change (Douglas et al., 2017; van der Linden, 2015; van Prooijen & Douglas, 2018).”
Unfounded beliefs, distress and powerlessness: A three‐wave longitudinal study
Mikušková, E. B., & Teličák, P. (2024) · Applied Psychology Health and Well-Being · doi:10.1111/aphw.12542 · Cited by 3
Decoding the Discourse: Analyzing the Linguistic Features and Strategies Behind the Querdenken Movement’s COVID-19 Narrative
Sobieska, A., Hampel, M., Weidenspointner, R., Pauli, V., Pan, C., Jun, S.-M., & Gutsmiedl, P. (2025) · Health Communication · doi:10.1080/10410236.2025.2469936 · Cited by 3
“…that even brief exposure to conspiratorial content can have concerning effects, such as lower social and civic engagement and a greater likelihood of engaging in science rejection (Jolley & Douglas, 2014; Lewandowsky & Oberauer, 2016; Lewandowsky, Gignac, et al., 2013; van der Linden, 2015).”
Learning about Conspiracy Theories
Cullen, J. T. (2018) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190844073.003.0009 · Cited by 4
Conspiracy Theory Belief and Conspiratorial Thinking
Farhart, C. E. (2022) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108779104.036 · Cited by 3
Consumption of information and citizen’s perception of the sources consulted during the Covid-19 pandemic: A study of the situation based on opinion polls
Quian, A., Elías, C., & Pérez, X. S. (2023) · El Profesional de la Informacion · doi:10.3145/epi.2023.jul.13 · Cited by 4
Clones and zombies: rethinking conspiracy theories and the digital public sphere through a (post)-colonial perspective
Gagliardone, I., Pohjonen, M., Diepeveen, S., & Olaniran, S. (2023) · Information Communication & Society · doi:10.1080/1369118x.2023.2239890 · Cited by 3
“More contemporary versions of these critiques of conspiracy theorising identify it as ‘ unscienti ﬁ c ’ and even ‘ dangerous ’ (van der Linden, 2015).”
Background
Let's call! Using the phone to increase vaccine acceptance
Armand, A., Fracchia, M., & Vicente, P. C. (2023) · Health Economics · doi:10.1002/hec.4760 · Cited by 4
“…in line with recent advancements in inoculation research that promote interventions’ flexibility and scalability by exposing participants to the manipulation techniques behind misinformation (Lewandowsky et al., 2013; Van der Linden, 2015; Brady et al., 2017; Roozenbeek and Van Der Linden, 2019).”
Evil perceptions but not entertainment value appraisals relate to conspiracy beliefs
Harmon‐Jones, E., Szymaniak, K., Edgeworth, D., Sebban, G., & Harmon‐Jones, C. (2024) · Frontiers in Social Psychology · doi:10.3389/frsps.2024.1350584 · Cited by 3
Call it a conspiracy: How conspiracy belief predicts recognition of conspiracy theories
Prims, J. (2024) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0301601 · Cited by 5
“However, belief in conspiracy theories is correlated with risky health behaviors [19–22], neglect of environmental issues [23], and decreased political participation [21].”
Background
It is all a conspiracy: Conspiracy theories about the COVID-19 pandemic and the war in Ukraine
Myslivec, J. (2024) · Ceskoslovenska psychologie · doi:10.51561/cspsych.68.2.111 · Cited by 3
Watching for a snake in the grass: Objectification increases conspiracy beliefs.
Poon, K.-T., Chan, R. S. W., Lai, H.-S., Jiang, Y., & Teng, F. (2024) · British Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjso.12768 · Cited by 4
Belief in a Norm‐Consistent Climate Policy Conspiracy Theory and Non‐Normative Collective Action
Pummerer, L., Ditrich, L., Winter, K., & Sassenberg, K. (2025) · Journal of Applied Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/jasp.13094 · Cited by 5
How Epistemic Beliefs about Climate Change Predict Climate Change Conspiracy Beliefs
Nöth, L., & Zander, L. (2025) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1523143 · Cited by 5
“Van der Linden (2015) explored the causal link between belief in CCCT and acceptance of climate science through an experiment.”
The Hidden and the Revealed
Filer, T. (2018) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190844073.003.0027 · Cited by 3
Identifying Conspiracy Theories News based on Event Relation Graph
Lei, Y., & Huang, R. (2023) · Findings of the Association for Computational Linguistics: EMNLP (Findings of EMNLP) · doi:10.18653/v1/2023.findings-emnlp.656 · Cited by 2
Punishing evil and promoting good: the moderating role of subject reputation in the effect of emotion on sharing debunking information
Chao, F., Zhou, Q., Yu, G., & Sun, Y. (2025) · Humanities and Social Sciences Communications · doi:10.1057/s41599-025-05772-1 · Cited by 2
“Exposure to conspiracy theories often reduces pro-social behaviours and erodes trust in scienti ﬁ c information (Van der Linden 2015), thereby decreasing the likelihood of sharing debunking information.”
Noninformation and Nationalism: Coverage of Climate Change in Newspapers From the Five Largest Carbon-Emitting Nations
Kenix, L. J. (2025) · SAGE Open · doi:10.1177/21582440251366772 · Cited by 2
“Research from around the world has found that when Americans, for example, do not understand the factual causes of a problem, many simply disengage (Lewandowsky et al., 2013), whereas Australians respond by reducing their prosocial intentions (van der Linden, 2015).”
Testing the impact of fallacies and contrarian claims in climate change misinformation
Lieu, R., Hayes, O. R., & Cook, J. (2025) · British Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjop.70049 · Cited by 2
Конспирологическое мышление: понятие, измерение и факторы
Kazun, A. (2022) · Journal of Economic Sociology · doi:10.17323/1726-3247-2022-2-91-117 · Cited by 5
Vaccine-related conspiracy and counter-conspiracy narratives. Silencing effects
Corbu, N., Buturoiu, R., Frunzaru, V., & Guiu, G. (2023) · Communications · doi:10.1515/commun-2022-0022 · Cited by 2
Exploring the Nexus between Conspiracy Beliefs and Creativity, Attitudes toward People, and Psychological Wellbeing: Insights from the 10th European Social Survey
Diržytė, A. (2023) · Sustainability · doi:10.3390/su152215722 · Cited by 2
A conspiracy theory perspective on the influence of political events on tourism: a longitudinal study of Hong Kong
Lin, X., & Yan, L. (2023) · Asia Pacific Journal of Tourism Research · doi:10.1080/10941665.2023.2293799 · Cited by 2
“Although previous studies have revealed a relation between conspi-racy belief and negative behavior (Jolley & Douglas, 2014; van der Linden, 2015), the role of political engagement in mediating the belief – intention relationship has rarely been investigated.”
BackgroundResult
The Relationship Between Social Media Usage and Responses to Hoax and Hate Speech in Padang
Lestari, Y., Elian, N., Diego, D., Anindya, A., & Helmi, R. F. (2024) · Studies in Media and Communication · doi:10.11114/smc.v12i3.6682 · Cited by 2
“Research by Van der Linden (2015) and Roozenbeek & Van der Linden (2020) highlights that political ideology significantly influences individuals' perceptions of information, affecting whether they view it as real or a hoax.”
Background
Can Education Save Us From Ourselves? Three Psychological Challenges to Democracy
Clark, C. H., & Schmeichel, M. (2024) · Review of Educational Research · doi:10.3102/00346543241288245 · Cited by 4
“In a study of 316 adults, van der Linden (2015) found that individuals exposed to a conspiracy video about climate change were significantly less likely than individuals who were exposed to a pro-climate-action message and those in a control group to believe that there was scientific consensus on…”
Dialogicality and Conspiracy Theory: The Coexistence of Conspiracist and Non‐Conspiracist Beliefs
Hall, M. S., Franks, B., & Bauer, M. W. (2025) · European Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1002/ejsp.3120 · Cited by 3
Politricks: Teaching political tricks and discernment through active and passive tools
Hopkins, S.-A. M., Rayburn-Reeves, R. M., Lindemans, J. W., O’Gorrman, K. C., Vandewalker, I., Luebeck, C., & Sherlock, J. (2025) · PNAS Nexus · doi:10.1093/pnasnexus/pgaf245 · Cited by 2
Beyond the Hoax Narratives: Understanding Climate Change Conspiracy Beliefs Through the Lens of the US–China Conflicts
Chan, H., & Tam, K. (2025) · Journal of Social Issues · doi:10.1111/josi.70015 · Cited by 3
Fighting fire with fire: Prebunking with the use of a plausible meta‐conspiracy framing
Biddlestone, M., Green, R., Toribio-Flórez, D., de Gourville, D., Sutton, R. M., & Douglas, K. M. (2025) · British Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjop.70023 · Cited by 2
“Once again, in contrast to a well-established body of research (e.g. Biddlestone et al., 2022; Jolley & Douglas, 2014b; van der Linden, 2015), exposure to climate change conspiracy theories did not alter participants' climate conspiracy beliefs or intentions.”
CONSPIRACY BELIEF AND BEHAVIOR IN THE COVID-19 PANDEMIC
Ярош, Н. С., Artiukhova, V., & Zimovin, O. (2021) · BRAIN BROAD RESEARCH IN ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE AND NEUROSCIENCE · doi:10.18662/brain/12.2/200 · Cited by 3
Kognitivni prediktori oklijevanja s cijepljenjem protiv bolesti SARS-CoV-2 među mladima u Hrvatskoj
Rebernjak, B. (2023) · Socijalna psihijatrija · doi:10.24869/spsih.2023.123 · Cited by 2
“People who believe in conspiracy theories are less likely to be included in socially useful activities such as those aiming at preventing climate change (26) or at adhering to the measures prescribed in order to control the pandemic (27, 28).”
Background
The Psychopathological Antecedents of Conspiracy Belief
Thresher-Andrews, C. (2020) · Goldsmiths (University of London) · doi:10.25602/gold.00030120 · Cited by 2
Acceptance and adherence to COVID-19 preventive measures are shaped predominantly by conspiracy beliefs, mistrust in science and fear - A comparison of more than 20 psychological variablesPreprint
Hartmann, M., & Müller, P. (2021) · doi:10.31124/advance.16644889 · Cited by 2
Why do we argue about science? Exploring the psychological antecedents of rejection of science
Kerr, J. R. (2020) · Open Access Victoria University of Wellington | Te Herenga Waka (Figshare) · doi:10.26686/wgtn.17142374 · Cited by 2
Climate Change Denial & Skepticism: A Review of the Literature
Weddig, C. (2022) · doi:10.35650/mw.3043.d.2022 · Cited by 4
“This plan worked: conservatives are documented to be more likely to believe global warming is a hoax over adherents to other political ideologies (Van Der Linden 2015).”
Background
Before Fighting, Know your Enemy: What do we Measure With our Scales of Conspiracism?Preprint
Bonetto, É., Arciszewski, T., & Delouvée, S. (2023) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/6yt8h · Cited by 2
Moving between two paradigms - sociocultural approach to research of conspiracy theories
Lukić, P. (2020) · Sociologija · doi:10.2298/soc2002193l · Cited by 1

Authors: van der Linden, S.
Venue: Personality and Individual Differences
Publisher: Elsevier BV
Published: 2015-12
Volume: 87
Pages: 171-173
ISSN: 0191-8869 (ISSN-L)
DOI: 10.1016/j.paid.2015.07.045
OpenAlex: W1199131209
Cited by: 391
References: 33
Citations by year: 2026: 18 · 2025: 44 · 2024: 32 · 2023: 42 · 2022: 67 · 2021: 58 · 2020: 36 · 2019: 19 · 2018: 48 · 2017: 19 · 2016: 6 · 2015: 2
FWCI: 82.91
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Licence: www.elsevier.com/tdm/userlicense/1.0/ (tdm)
Locations: Personality and Individual Differences (publishedVersion)
Topics: Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Misinformation and Its Impacts
Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Climate Change Communication and Perception
Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Paranormal Experiences and Beliefs
Keywords: conspiracy theories, global warming, climate change skepticism, prosocial behavior, environmental decision-making, charitable giving, petition signing, climate change denial

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The conspiracy-effect: Exposure to conspiracy theories (about global warming) decreases pro-social behavior and science acceptance

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