Fast, furious and enduring: Sensitive versus critical periods in sexual differentiation of the brain
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Understanding critical periods in brain development and how they impact adult functioning is a primary goal of neuroscience. The sexual differentiation of the brain is a unique critical period in that it is initiated by endogenous production of a critical signaling molecule in only one sex, testosterone in fetal males. Females, by contrast, do not produce testosterone but are highly responsive to it and remain sensitive to its masculinizing effects well past the close of the critical period in males. Compared to other well characterized critical periods, such as those for the visual system or barrel cortex, the masculinization of the brain is telescoped into a few short days and initiated prenatally. The slightly longer and postnatal sensitive period in females provides a valuable tool for understanding this challenging but fundamental developmental process.
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In rodents, sexual differentiation processes occur during a critical period beginning just days prior to birth and ending shortly after parturition.
“In rodents, these processes occur during a critical period of life beginning just days prior to birth and ending shortly after parturition (McCarthy et al., 2018).”
From Developmental origins of sex differences in the neural circuitry of play (2020) · cites this paper as McCarthy et al., 2018
The “Critical periods versus sensitive periods” section places the onset of the rodent critical window before birth, with fetal androgen production beginning several days prenatally. But it says the window’s closing varies by endpoint and that females remain sensitive longer than males; the “beginning and an end but also a middle” section gives an example extending to about postnatal day 10. Thus, a single end point shortly after birth overgeneralizes the paper’s account. (LLM, conf=0.86)
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Sex differences in auditory brainstem responses in the Hispid Pocket Mouse (Chaetodipus hispidus)
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Excess Neonatal Testosterone Causes Male-Specific Social and Fear Memory Deficits in Wild-Type Mice
Quiñones-Labernik, P., Blocklinger, K. L., Bruce, M. R., Hagan, E., Preuschl, D., Tesar, C., & Ferri, S. L. (2025) · eneuro · doi:10.1523/eneuro.0020-25.2025 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
“In rodents, sex hormone-mediated effects on brain development are complete by Postnatal Day (PN)10 (Davis et al., 1996; McCarthy et al., 2018).”
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Microglia, Hormones, and Behavior
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Brown, R. E. (2023) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-20792-1_1 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
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The effect of di-isononyl phthalate on human reproductive function and in the experiment
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Dynamic changes in the transcriptome of oocytes during adolescent-onset PCOS in micePreprint
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Sex differences in brain-behavior relationships in the first two years of lifePreprint
Fenske, S. J., Liu, J., Chen, H., Diniz, M. A., Stephens, R. L., Cornea, E. A., Gilmore, J. H., & Gao, W. (2024) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2024.01.31.578147 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
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Self-citation
- Authors
- McCarthy, M. M., Herold, K., & Stockman, S. L.
- Affiliations
- University of Maryland, Baltimore (US)
- Corresponding author
- McCarthy, Margaret M.
- Venue
- Physiology & Behavior
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2018-04
- Volume
- 187
- Pages
- 13-19
- ISSN
- 0031-9384 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC5844806
- OpenAlex
- W2765733758
- Cited by
- 97
- References
- 39
- Citations by year
- 2026: 3 · 2025: 9 · 2024: 11 · 2023: 8 · 2022: 11 · 2021: 21 · 2020: 21 · 2019: 8 · 2018: 4 · 2017: 1
- FWCI
- 0.87
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Physiology & Behavior (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (acceptedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institute of Mental Health (R01MH052716)
- National Institute on Drug Abuse (R01DA039062)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Molecular Biology › Sexual Differentiation and Disorders
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Genetics › Genetic and Clinical Aspects of Sex Determination and Chromosomal Abnormalities
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Neuroendocrine regulation and behavior
- Keywords
- sexual differentiation of the brain, critical period, sensitive period, testosterone, masculinization, prenatal hormone exposure, sex differences, brain development
- MeSH terms
- Animals, Brain, Critical Period, Psychological, Humans, Nerve Net, Sex Characteristics, Gene Expression Regulation, Developmental, Epigenomics
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