Using the tools of genetic epidemiology to understand sex differences in neuropsychiatric disorders
Open accessAbstract
Many neuropsychiatric disorders exhibit differences in prevalence, age of onset, symptoms or course of illness between males and females. For the most part, the origins of these differences are not well understood. In this article, we provide an overview of sex differences in psychiatric disorders including autism spectrum disorder (ASD), attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), anxiety, depression, alcohol and substance abuse, schizophrenia, eating disorders and risk of suicide. We discuss both genetic and nongenetic mechanisms that have been hypothesized to underlie these differences, including ascertainment bias, environmental stressors, X‐ or Y‐linked risk loci, and differential liability thresholds in males and females. We then review the use of twin, family and genome‐wide association approaches to study potential genetic mechanisms of sex differences and the extent to which these designs have been employed in studies of psychiatric disorders. We describe the utility of genetic epidemiologic study designs, including classical twin and family studies, large‐scale studies of population registries, derived recurrence risks, and molecular genetic analyses of genome‐wide variation that may enhance our understanding sex differences in neuropsychiatric disorders.
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Sex differences in anxiety disorders may be due to genetic factors.
“(c) genetic factors.30,31,52,61,64,71”
From Factors associated with gender and sex differences in anxiety prevalence and comorbidity: A systematic review (2022) · cites this paper as [71]
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“This vulnerability is bi-directionally related to the environment; therefore, environmental factors such as gender socialization could counteract the anxious tendency in men and enhance it in women.(30,71) Finally, some studies suggest that women’s hormonal fluctuations (progesterone, estrogens, and oxytocin) may be t…”
BackgroundResultSex and gender in neurodevelopmental conditions
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- Authors
- Merikangas, A. K., & Almasy, L.
- Affiliations
- Children's Hospital of Philadelphia (US)
- Corresponding author
- Merikangas, Alison K.
- Venue
- Genes, Brain and Behavior
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 2020-06-22
- Volume
- 19
- Issue
- 6
- Pages
- e12660-e12660
- ISSN
- 1601-183X (ISSN-L)
- 1601-1848
- PMC
- PMC7507200
- OpenAlex
- W3020033934
- Cited by
- 82
- References
- 148
- Citations by year
- 2026: 14 · 2025: 11 · 2024: 20 · 2023: 9 · 2022: 12 · 2021: 12 · 2020: 4
- FWCI
- 1.32
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Genes Brain & Behavior (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institute of General Medical Sciences (GM031575)
- National Institute of Mental Health (MH061622, MH119690, MH119737, MH120739)
- National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (AA008401)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Genetics › Genetic Associations and Epidemiology
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Sex and Gender in Healthcare
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Molecular Biology › Sexual Differentiation and Disorders
- Keywords
- sex differences, neuropsychiatric disorders, psychiatric genetics, autism spectrum disorder, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, anxiety, depression, substance use disorders, schizophrenia, eating disorders, suicide risk, ascertainment bias, twin studies, family studies, genome-wide association study, recurrence risk, environmental stressors
- MeSH terms
- Mental Disorders, Female, Humans, Male, Pedigree, Sex Characteristics, Sex Chromosomes, Twin Studies as Topic, Genome-Wide Association Study
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