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The neuroanatomical distribution of oxytocin receptor binding and mRNA in the male rhesus macaque (Macaca mulatta)
Open accessAbstract
The rhesus macaque (Macaca mulatta) is an important primate model for social cognition, and recent studies have begun to explore the impact of oxytocin on social cognition and behavior. Macaques have great potential for elucidating the neural mechanisms by which oxytocin modulates social cognition, which has implications for oxytocin-based pharmacotherapies for psychiatric disorders such as autism and schizophrenia. Previous attempts to localize oxytocin receptors (OXTR) in the rhesus macaque brain have failed due to reduced selectivity of radioligands, which in primates bind to both OXTR and the structurally similar vasopressin 1a receptor (AVPR1A). We have developed a pharmacologically-informed competitive binding autoradiography protocol that selectively reveals OXTR and AVPR1A binding sites in primate brain sections. Using this protocol, we describe the neuroanatomical distribution of OXTR in the macaque. Finally, we use in situ hybridization to localize OXTR mRNA. Our results demonstrate that OXTR expression in the macaque brain is much more restricted than AVPR1A. OXTR is largely limited to the nucleus basalis of Meynert, pedunculopontine tegmental nucleus, the superficial gray layer of the superior colliculus, the trapezoid body, and the ventromedial hypothalamus. These regions are involved in a variety of functions relevant to social cognition, including modulating visual attention, processing auditory and multimodal sensory stimuli, and controlling orienting responses to visual stimuli. These results provide insights into the neural mechanisms by which oxytocin modulates social cognition and behavior in this species, which, like humans, uses vision and audition as the primary modalities for social communication.
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In the citing paper
“OT receptors are concentrated in cholinergic brain regions regulating visual and auditory attention in nonhuman primates (6, 42, 43)”
From Statistical and Methodological Considerations for the Interpretation of Intranasal Oxytocin Studies (2016) · cites this paper as [42]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Similarly, in humans, visual processing of social cues is facilitated by IN-OT through increased attention to and recognition of emotional cues in faces [98,99].”
From The Neurobiology of Love and Pair Bonding from Human and Animal Perspectives (2023) · cites this paper as [99]
In the citing paper
“we measured both OXTR and AVPR1a with an optimized and reliable method previously validated in nonhuman primate and human brain tissue34,37,38.”
From Effect of age and autism spectrum disorder on oxytocin receptor density in the human basal forebrain and midbrain (2018) · cites this paper as [37]
In the citing paper
“These radioligands are now known to bind to both receptor types when they are used in primate brain37.”
From Effect of age and autism spectrum disorder on oxytocin receptor density in the human basal forebrain and midbrain (2018) · cites this paper as [37]
In the citing paper
“Although these compounds bind selectively to their respective receptors in rodents, they have now been shown to exhibit relatively high affinities for both OXTR and AVPR1a in primates (27,28).”
From Comparative Perspectives on Oxytocin and Vasopressin Receptor Research in Rodents and Primates: Translational Implications (2016) · cites this paper as [27]
In the citing paper
“With this method, which combines the use of the radioligands mentioned above with selective competitor ligands, we have now successfully mapped OXTR in the brain of the most common NHP model organism used in biomedical research: the rhesus macaque (Macaca mulatta) (27).”
From Comparative Perspectives on Oxytocin and Vasopressin Receptor Research in Rodents and Primates: Translational Implications (2016) · cites this paper as [27]
In the citing paper
“We have recently reported the design of a pharmacologically optimised method for competitive binding receptor autoradiography that can selectively and reliably reveal the distributions of OXTR and AVPR1a in primate tissue (27).”
From Comparative Perspectives on Oxytocin and Vasopressin Receptor Research in Rodents and Primates: Translational Implications (2016) · cites this paper as [27]
In the citing paper
“The rhesus macaque brain in general exhibits extremely sparse OXTR expression relative to AVPR1a (27,31), with the most dense OXTR binding seen in the NBM and superficial grey layer of the SC (Fig. 2c,f).”
From Comparative Perspectives on Oxytocin and Vasopressin Receptor Research in Rodents and Primates: Translational Implications (2016) · cites this paper as [27]
In the citing paper
“ALS-II-69 was evaluated in previous studies and shown to effectively block OXTR radioligand binding to primate brain tissue (27).”
From Comparative Perspectives on Oxytocin and Vasopressin Receptor Research in Rodents and Primates: Translational Implications (2016) · cites this paper as [27]
In the citing paper
“However, we now know that this region of the macaque brain does not contain detectable levels of OXTR binding (27), although OXTR may be present on NBM terminals in the amygdala.”
From Comparative Perspectives on Oxytocin and Vasopressin Receptor Research in Rodents and Primates: Translational Implications (2016) · cites this paper as [27]
In the citing paper
“OXTR is distributed throughout the brain of many vertebrates and, importantly, the pattern of OXTR distribution is diverse between species (32, 33).”
From Variation in the Oxytocin Receptor Gene Predicts Brain Region–Specific Expression and Social Attachment (2016) · cites this paper as [33]
In the citing paper
“In primates, OTR has been detected in the superior colliculus, the pulvinar, and the primary visual cortex (Freeman et al. 2014).”
From A precision medicine approach to oxytocin trials (2017) · cites this paper as Freeman et al. 2014
In the citing paper
“There is a high density of OT receptors in the amygdala (Insel and Shapiro, 1992; but see Freeman et al., 2014).”
From Low dose intranasal oxytocin delivered with Breath Powered device dampens amygdala response to emotional stimuli: A peripheral effect-controlled within-subjects randomized dose-response fMRI trial (2016) · cites this paper as Freeman et al., 2014
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BackgroundMethodSelf-citationYoshida, M., Takayanagi, Y., Inoue, K., Kimura, T., Young, L. J., Onaka, T., & Nishimori, K. (2009) · The Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.5593-08.2009 · Cited by 608 · cited 2×
“However using IHC to stain for OXTR has been notoriously problematic; a study that tested six different OXTR antibodies found that all of them produced identical patterns of staining in brain tissue from wildtype and OXTR knockout mice, indicating their unreliability in detecting OXTR in rodent brain (Yoshida et al.,…”
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“Overlap between OXTR mRNA expression and receptor density has also been found in primate species such as titi monkey(58) and rhesus macaque.(59) These results suggest that OXTR SNPs and their corresponding OXTR expression levels in the brain could be used as an index of localized, functional and quantifiable effects o…”
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“Anatomical studies in rhesus macaques show a high density of oxytocin receptors in the nucleus basalis of Meynert, a forebrain region that sends cholinergic projections throughout cortex and plays a central role in attention [61].”
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“In nonhuman primates, oxytocin receptors are found in regions that modulate visual attention (Freeman et al., 2014), and in multiple animal species, oxytocin influences visual signal processing and attention shifts during social interactions (Nagasawa et al.”
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“Oxytocin signaling in the amygdala plays an essential role for social recognition in mice, and oxytocin administration has been shown to influence amygdala activity in humans.”
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“As OT and AVP share similar amino-acid sequences, they can bind to each other's receptors, albeit with different affinities (Freeman et al., 2014; Young & Flanagan-Cato, 2012).”
Localization of oxytocin receptors in the prairie vole (Microtus ochrogaster) neocortex
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“There is sufficient evidence of the distribution of the binding sites of OT from post-mortem human brain studies (Jenkins et al., 1984; Loup et al., 1991), and it is reported that OT specifically binds to the NBM.”
InfluentialVasopressin and oxytocin beyond the pituitary in the human brain
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“AVP’s prosocial effects are largely mediated via AVPRV1a [69, 86, 87], which in primates are likewise distributed throughout these “social brain” regions [88, 89].”
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BackgroundEmotion recognition associated with polymorphism in oxytocinergic pathway gene ARNT2
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“These receptors are expressed in different regions in different species in a manner that suggests that its involvement in social attention is conserved through evolution (Young et al., 1999; Yoshida et al., 2009; Roper et al., 2011; Boccia et al., 2013; Freeman et al., 2014).”
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“Previous rodent and nonhuman primates studies have suggested that both the subiculum and the superior colliculus are brain regions with particular dense OXT receptor expression (Elands et al., 1988; Shapiro and Insel, 1989; Freeman et al., 2014, 2014).”
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“…IN-OT affects behavior, for example, central versus peripheral mechanisms, whether the intranasal administration method can actually deliver OT to deep brain targets (Leng & Ludwig, 2016), and where IN-OT may be acting based on the localization of OTXR in the primate brain (Freeman et al., 2014).”
BackgroundInfluentialExpanding Regulation Theory With Oxytocin
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“A similar relationship between mating strategy and NAC OXTR levels is also observed in primates 17 , as the NAC of the polygamous rhesus macaque ( Macaca mulatta ) is devoid of OXTR 18 , while the socially monogamous marmoset ( Callithrix jaccus ) has abundant NAC OXTR 19 .”
Evolution of Neuropeptide Signaling: From a Single Cell to Mammals
Krabichler, Q., & Grinevich, V. (2025) · Masterclass in neuroendocrinology · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-80209-6_1 · Cited by 3
Thakur, P., Shrivastava, R., & Shrivastava, V. K. (2021) · Metabolism Open · doi:10.1016/j.metop.2021.100146 · Cited by 2
Social Decision-Making in Nonhuman Primates
Jazayari, M., Ballesta, S., & Duhamel, J. (2016) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-805308-9.00014-2 · Cited by 2
Oxytocin and Plasticity of Social Behavior
Hammock, E. A. D. (2017) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190635374.013.9 · Cited by 2
Oxytocin-Cholinergic Central Interaction: Implications for Non-Social Memory Formation
Medina, C., Krawczyk, M. C., Millan, J., Blake, M. G., & Boccia, M. M. (2022) · Neuroscience · doi:10.1016/j.neuroscience.2022.06.028 · Cited by 2
Mondragón‐Ceballos, R., Hernández-Vázquez, G. C., Rojas‐Maya, S., García-Granados, M. D., Jaqueline, L., & Hernández-López, L. E. (2021) · Theriogenology · doi:10.1016/j.theriogenology.2021.09.022 · Cited by 1
The expression of father-daughter bond behaviors influences adult partner attachment in titi monkeys
Witczak, L. R., Lau, A. R., Hobson, B. A., Freeman, S. M., Zablocki‐Thomas, P., Dufek, M. E., Ferrer, E. E., Chaudhari, A. J., & Bales, K. L. (2025) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-025-31143-6 · Cited by 1
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Tales from the life and lab of a female social neuroscientist
Parker, K. J. (2023) · Comprehensive Psychoneuroendocrinology · doi:10.1016/j.cpnec.2023.100202 · Cited by 1
Current practice in pharmacological treatment of generalized anxiety disorder
Useinova, A. N., Ayrapetova, A. A., Savshak, M. V., Li, Y. R., Tarusov, N. I., Kondakov, D. M., Boyko, M. V., Solomko, D. V., Seitmemetova, U. M., & Davydova, D. S. (2024) · Vestnik nevrologii psihiatrii i nejrohirurgii (Bulletin of Neurology Psychiatry and Neurosurgery) · doi:10.33920/med-01-2407-10 · Cited by 1
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Oxytocin, Vasopressin, and Development of Social Behavior in Primates
Bales, K. L. (2016) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-804042-3.00094-4
Meynert’s Nucleus Complex White Matter Abnormalities in Autism Spectrum Disorders: An MRI Study
Pardini, M., Garaci, F. G., Záborszky, L., Coniglione, F., Serafini, G., Siracusano, M., Benassi, F., & Gialloreti, L. E. (2017) · Journal of Intellectual Disability - Diagnosis and Treatment · doi:10.6000/2292-2598.2016.04.04.1
“Interestingly, the MN has been also identified - in the rhesus macaque brain - as one of the main localizations of oxytocin receptors [26].”
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da Silva, J. U. (2017) · Digital Library of Theses and Dissertations (Universidade de São Paulo) · doi:10.11606/d.47.2017.tde-25072017-172834
Tracking effects of oxytocin crossing the blood brain barrier in vivo and in vitro
Chakraborty, T. (2024) · Library, Museums and Press - UDSpace (University of Delaware) · doi:10.58088/6tnt-6n23
On oxytocin and social behavior
Hovey, D. (2018) · Gothenburg University Publications Electronic Archive (Gothenburg University)
Pfaff, D. W. (2020) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-323-85861-8.00002-5
Pharmacological Characterisation of Novel Oxytocin and Vasopressin Receptor Ligands
Gulliver, D. W. (2021) · The Sydney eScholarship Repository (The University of Sydney)
Oxytocin, Arginine Vasopressin and Autism Spectrum Disorder
Bagasra, O., Heggen, C., & Hossain, M. I. (2018) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9781119042280.ch4
Wilczynski, W., & Brosnan, S. F. (2021) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108671187.007
Desenho, síntese e caracterização funcional de análogos de oxitocina
da Silva, A. L. B. (2021) · Digital Library of Theses and Dissertations (Universidade de São Paulo) · doi:10.11606/d.17.2021.tde-10052021-133033
Schrock, A. E., Grossman, M. R., Grebe, N. M., Sharma, A., Freeman, S. M., Palumbo, M. C., Bales, K. L., Patisaul, H. B., & Drea, C. M. (2025) · Biology Letters · doi:10.1098/rsbl.2024.0647
Circuits neuronaux sous-tendant la régulation émotionnelle par le système ocytocinergique
Goyon, S. (2018) · theses.fr (ABES) · doi:10.70675/c8c9bec0z7b79z4826z862az93b128e1ada6
Ameloot, A., Disarbois, É., Elseedy, H., Duperron, C., Grinevich, V., Sirigu, A., & Duhamel, J. (2026) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.64898/2026.09.17.751377
“Finally, OT may influence attentional orienting itself through actions on salience and arousal systems enriched in OT receptors in primates 7,26 .”
Metadata
- Authors
- Freeman, S. M., Inoue, K., Smith, A. L., Goodman, M. M., & Young, L. J.
- Affiliations
- Emory University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Freeman, Sara M.
- Venue
- Psychoneuroendocrinology
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2014-07
- Volume
- 45
- Pages
- 128-141
- ISSN
- 0306-4530 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC4043226
- OpenAlex
- W1989923863
- Cited by
- 185
- References
- 73
- Citations by year
- 2026: 2 · 2025: 4 · 2024: 4 · 2023: 7 · 2022: 13 · 2021: 17 · 2020: 9 · 2019: 12 · 2018: 28 · 2017: 26 · 2016: 29 · 2015: 23 · 2014: 10
- FWCI
- 43.40
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Psychoneuroendocrinology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (acceptedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institutes of Health (5t32mh073525-05, P51OD011107, P51OD011132)
- National Institute of Mental Health (T32-MH073525, R21MH090776, T32MH073525-06, P50MH100023, MH090776)
- National Center for Research Resources (P51RR000165)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Endocrine and Autonomic Systems › Neuroendocrine regulation and behavior
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cellular and Molecular Neuroscience › Neuropeptides and Animal Physiology
- Life Sciences › Agricultural and Biological Sciences › Ecology, Evolution, Behavior and Systematics › Primate Behavior and Ecology
- Keywords
- oxytocin receptor, vasopressin 1a receptor, AVPR1A, rhesus monkeys, neuroanatomical distribution, nucleus basalis of Meynert, pedunculopontine nucleus, superior colliculus, trapezoid body, ventromedial hypothalamus, social cognition, visual attention, auditory processing, orienting response, autism spectrum disorder, schizophrenia
- MeSH terms
- Animals, Brain, Cricetulus, Cricetinae, Humans, Macaca mulatta, Male, Neurons, Oxytocin, Protein Binding, RNA, Messenger, Tissue Distribution, CHO Cells, Receptors, Oxytocin
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