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Cited by 79Food Waste Reduction and SustainabilityEnvironmental Education and SustainabilityNutrition, Health and Food Behavior

Waste watchers: A food waste reduction intervention among households in Arizona

Open access
Wharton, Christopher, Vizcaino, Maricarmen, Berardy, Andrew, Opejin, Adenike·2021·Resources, Conservation and Recycling
DOI 10.1016/j.resconrec.2020.105109
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Abstract

Food waste is a globally significant issue, contributing to financial losses and adversely impacting the environment across the supply chain. In developed countries, the issue is especially problematic among consumers. The present study conducted a novel, evidence-based and theoretically founded household food waste intervention designed to explore how a multifaceted educational approach could impact food waste generated in the home. Households in the City of Phoenix, AZ, USA, were recruited to participate in the study (N = 53). Enrolled participants completed a baseline week, a 5-week intervention, and a follow-up week. Education and strategic information were delivered via a website specifically designed for this study, presenting home strategies for food waste reduction in a variety of formats (e.g. podcasts, infographics, videos). Participants were trained on how to properly collect, weigh, and report their weekly household food waste throughout the duration of the study. Participants also completed a series of surveys on food waste behaviors and behavior change constructs pre- and post- intervention. Household food waste showed a significant decrease from baseline to follow-up (p = .008), from week 1 to follow-up (p = .017), and from week 2 to follow-up (p = .001). Also, a significant improvement in all behavior change constructs was observed (p =0.004 – 0.000) by the end of the study, as well as an association between household food waste and behavior change constructs (rs = -0.28 – -0.42). The present study demonstrated that an educational intervention delivered virtually was effective in reducing food waste by 27.85% among participating households.

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Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

This single-group pre-post study tested a 5-week, internet-delivered educational intervention to reduce household food waste among Phoenix, AZ households. It found a 27.85% reduction in collected household food waste from baseline to follow-up and significant improvements in Theory of Planned Behavior constructs.

Key findings

  • Household food waste significantly decreased from baseline to follow-up (median 28.22 vs. 20.36; p = .008), from week 1 to follow-up (36.19 vs. 20.36; p = .017), and from week 2 to follow-up (33.19 vs. 20.36; p = .001), with an overall reduction of 27.85%.
  • All behavior change constructs improved significantly after the intervention (p = 0.004 to <0.000), with effect sizes ranging from medium to large.
  • Household food waste was associated with behavior change constructs at the end of the study (abstract reports r_s = -0.28 to -0.42).
  • Subjective food waste also decreased significantly from baseline to end of study (z = -2.31, p = .021) and correlated with collected food waste at baseline (r = 0.35, p = .01) and follow-up (r = 0.37, p = .01).

Methods

  • Single-group, pre-post-test design with 64 enrolled adults and 53 completers; participants were English-speaking adults 18+, primary household food purchasers, non-composters, Phoenix residents in single-family homes, and ate dinner at home at least 3 days/week.
  • Participants completed a baseline week, a 5-week intervention using a study website with five modules (recipes, shopping habits, food storage, expiration dates, freezer usage), and a follow-up week; they collected and weighed solid, edible household food waste using provided buckets and digital scales.
  • Pre/post surveys measured subjective food waste and TPB constructs (intentions, norms, attitudes, perceived behavioral control); analyses included Friedman’s test, Wilcoxon signed rank tests, Spearman correlations, and qualitative exit interviews.

Limitations

  • Stated: the study was conducted in a specific geographic region and only among single-family homes; the sample was primarily female because recruitment targeted primary food shoppers; there was no control group; and the 5-week intervention duration leaves durability of changes unknown.
  • Stated: lower-income households were more likely to drop out, and completers reported higher income than non-completers (p = .03).
  • Evident from the text: the final analytic sample was small (N = 53 completers), and the qualitative findings came from 48 participants who completed exit interviews.

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Registry

Crossref · 10.1016/j.resconrec.2020.105109

Cites

Statistics

Claims the paper makes

0 of 57 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged

  • Findingown data

    Household food waste was associated with behavior change constructs (rs = -0.28 to -0.42).

    “as well as an association between household food waste and behavior change constructs (r s = -0.28--0.42)”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Participants accurately collected, weighed, and reported their household food waste throughout the study.
  • Findingown data

    81.1% of the final sample responded 'never true' to the statement that they couldn't afford to eat balanced meals.

    “and 81.1% responded”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Findingown data

    All behavior change constructs improved significantly by the end of the study (p = 0.004 to 0.000).

    “Also, a significant improvement in all behavior change constructs was observed (p =0.004 -0.000) by the end of the study”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Participants accessed and engaged with the intervention website modules as instructed.
  • Findingown data

    Household food waste decreased significantly from week 1 to follow-up (p = .017).

    “from week 1 to follow-up (p = .017)”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Participants accurately collected, weighed, and reported their household food waste throughout the study.
  • Findingown data

    86.8% of the final sample responded 'never true' to the statement that the food they bought just didn't last and they didn't have money to get more.

    “Similarly, 86.8% responded”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • May combine two claims. 33
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 60
  • The quote only partly states this claim. 6

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    There were no significant differences between pre- and post-intervention in weight, body mass index, body fat percentage, fat mass, or diet quality as measured by REAP (all p > .07).

    “There were no significant differences between pre-and post-intervention in weight, body mass index, body fat percentage, fat mass, or diet quality as measured by REAP (all p > .07).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data

    83% of the final sample responded 'never true' to worrying whether their food would run out before they got money to buy more.

    “The U.S. household food security survey indicated that 83% of our final sample responded”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    All behavior change constructs (intentions, norms, attitudes, and perceived behavioral control) significantly increased following the Waste Watchers intervention (z values ranged between -2.90 and -4.48, p values between 0.004 and less than 0.000).

    “Results showed a significant increase in all behavior change constructs following the Waste Watchers intervention (z values ranged between -2.90 and -4.48, whereas p values ranged between 0.004 and less than 0.000)”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Effect sizes for food waste reduction were small in the first week of the study and became stronger by the end of the study.

    “Results indicated that the effect sizes were small in the first week of the study; however, effect sizes became stronger at the end of the study.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The spread of interquartile ranges of household food waste continuously decreased as the intervention progressed, with fewer extreme food waste values.

    “Moreover, variation within phases (i.e.spread of the interquartile ranges) continuously decreased as the intervention progressed and there were fewer people with extreme food waste values.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). The quote only partly states this claim.

    Study design and conductown data

    Attitudes were assessed with 4 items (α = 0.85).

    “Attitudes were assessed with 4 items; e.g.,”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. The quote only partly states this claim.

    Study design and conductreasoning

    Recruiting materials and scripts did not include the words 'food waste' in order to avoid selection bias.

    “The recruiting materials and scripts did not include the words”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductcitation

    Previous studies have indicated that the REAP has excellent reliability and is correlated with the Healthy Eating Index.

    “Previous studies have indicated that the REAP has excellent reliability and is correlated with the Healthy Eating Index, a commonly used tool to evaluate the quality of individual dietary patterns (Gans, et al., 2006).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Gans, et al., 2006 source

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). The quote only partly states this claim.

    Study design and conductreasoning

    The food waste question was phrased as 'percentage of food that could have been eaten... gets thrown away...' to decrease the negative connotation of food waste.

    “The question about food waste was phrased as”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductreasoning

    The research team used the term 'wasted food' to decrease the negative connotation of food waste and reduce social desirability bias.

    “During the training, our research team used the term 'wasted food' to decrease the negative connotation of food waste and further reduce potential social desirability bias.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

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    Study design and conductown data

    The online survey did not inform participants about the purpose of the study.

    “Similar to the laboratory visit, the online survey did not inform participants about the purpose of the study and instead asked participants about their level of agreement on a series of statements (please refer to appendix).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

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    Study design and conductown data

    A total of 48 participants completed the follow-up exit interview portion of the study.

    “A total of 48 participants completed the follow-up exit interview portion of the study.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims. The quote only partly states this claim.

    Study design and conductown data

    Norms were assessed with 5 items (α = 0.88).

    “Norms were assessed with 5 items; e.g.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

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    Study design and conductown data

    Confirmatory factor analyses indicated that items loaded appropriately on their respective subscale (0.65-0.87) and model fit was adequate (χ2 = 252.98, df = 71, p < .000; CFI = 0.96, RMSEA = 0.07).

    “Confirmatory factor analyses indicated that items loaded appropriately on their respective subscale (0.65 -87) and model fit was adequate (x 2 = 252.98,df = 71, p < .000;CFI = 0.96, RMSEA = 0.07).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductreasoning

    Main variables were located at the beginning of the survey and demographics at the end to decrease fatigue and stereotype bias.

    “Main variables under investigation (food waste behavior, behavior change constructs) were located at the beginning of the survey, with demographics at the end, to decrease the influence of fatigue on participants' responses and potential stereotype bias due to race/gender/socio-economic.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). The quote only partly states this claim.

    Study design and conductown data

    Perceived behavioral control was assessed with two items (α = 0.82).

    “Perceived behavioral control (PBC) was assessed with two items answered on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 0 = 'never avoidable' to 4 = 'always avoidable;' e.g.,”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductreasoning

    During the initial visit, participants were told the purpose was to observe food-related habits, not decreases in food waste, to decrease social desirability bias.

    “During this visit, participants were told that the purpose of the study was to observe and assess food-related habits at homenot to observe possible decreases in food wastein order to decrease potential social desirability bias.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductreasoning

    Survey statements were presented in a random order to decrease order bias.

    “Statements were presented in a random order to decrease order bias.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). The quote only partly states this claim.

    Study design and conductown data

    Intentions were assessed with 3 items (α = 0.89).

    “Intentions were assessed with 3 items; e.g.,”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductnone given

    The research team developed a standard protocol to train participants on how to collect and log their household food waste throughout the study.

    “The research team developed a standard protocol which was used to train participants on how to collect and log their household food waste throughout the duration of the study.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductown data

    A total of 64 adults enrolled in the study, and 53 completed all intervention-related activities.

    “A total of 64 adults enrolled in the study, and 53 completed all intervention-related activities.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductnone given

    An attention check was embedded in the survey to verify participants' engagement.

    “Lastly, an attention check was embedded in the survey to verify participants' engagement.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductnone given

    All study procedures were approved by the university's Institutional Review Board.

    “All study procedures were approved by the university's Institutional Review Board.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductown data

    The only significant difference between completers and dropouts was income (p = .03); completers reported higher income than non-completers.

    “However, chi-square and Mann-Whitney analyses for categorical and continuous demographic data, respectively, indicated that the only significant difference between those that completed the intervention and those that dropped out was income (x 2 = 21.94,df = 11, p = .03);completers reported higher income than non-completers.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductnone given

    Behavior change constructs were based on previous literature (Stancu et al. 2016) but modified to improve their psychometric properties through an iterative process.

    “Behavior change constructs were based on previous literature (Stancu et al. 2016), but modified to improve their psychometric properties through an iterative process.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Stancu et al. 2016 source

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    Premisecitation

    A survey among US residents yielded a model that predicted food waste based on lack of perceived practical benefits, guilt, and whether households felt they could do more.

    “Similarly, a survey among US residents regarding food waste awareness and attitudes yielded a model that predicted food waste based on lack of perceived practical benefits from reducing food waste, guilt associated with food waste, and whether households felt they could do more to prevent the problem (Qi and Roe 2016).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Qi and Roe 2016 source

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    Premisecitation

    In developed countries, a large proportion of edible food losses occur at the consumer level.

    “In developed parts of the world in particular, food waste is more so a problem of 'wasted food,' in that a large proportion of edible food losses occur at the consumer level (Lucifero, 2016; US Department of Agriculture, 2014).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Lucifero, 2016

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    • cites US Department of Agriculture, 2014

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    Premisecitation

    The Theory of Planned Behavior explains that human social behavior is the result of intention and planning, rather than being random or fully automatic.

    “The TPB is a modification to the theory of reasoned action (TRA) to account for perceived as well as actual control, and explains that human social behavior is the result of intention and planning, rather than being random or fully automatic (Ajzen, 1985).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Ajzen, 1985

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    Premisecitation

    A model based on an extended TPB accounted for 64% of variance in intention for household food waste reduction and significantly predicted food waste reduction at follow-up.

    “In one study, a model based on an extended theory of planned behavior framework was able to account for 64% of variance in intention when examining household food waste reduction, and significantly predicted food waste reduction at follow-up (Graham-Rowe et al., 2015).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Graham-Rowe et al., 2015 source

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    Premisecitation

    Applying TPB to Native American eating behaviors revealed that healthy eating was correlated more with barriers, attitudes, perceived behavioral control, and subjective norms, but not intentions.

    “Even so, applying TPB to Native American eating behaviors revealed that healthy eating was correlated more with barriers, attitudes, perceived behavioral control, and subjective norms, but not intentions, implying that these other factors drive eating behavior more so than intentions (Fila and Smith, 2006).”
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    Premisecitation

    US consumer food waste is estimated at roughly 422 g per person per day, representing an annual allocation of 30 million acres of cropland.

    “US consumer food waste, estimated to be roughly 422 g per person per day, represents an annual allocation of 30 million acres of cropland along with considerable commitments of fresh water and other agricultural inputs (Conrad, et al., 2018).”
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    Premisenone given

    No previous intervention study has employed a theoretically based intervention grounded in TPB to explore impacts on household food waste.

    “Moreover, no previous intervention study has employed a theoretically based intervention grounded in TPB to explore impacts on household food waste.”
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    Premisecitation

    Issues related to use of leftover food, understanding expiration dates and use of suboptimal food, and shopping strategies have been identified as key areas of focus for future interventions.

    “Specifically, issues related to use of leftover food, understanding expiration dates and use of suboptimal food, and shopping strategies have been identified as key areas of focus for future interventions (Schmidt and Matties, 2018).”
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    Premisecitation

    TPB has been successfully applied in an international setting through an educational intervention designed to increase greens consumption among mothers and daughters.

    “Another more recent study has shown TPB to be successfully applied in an international setting through an educational intervention designed to increase greens consumption among mothers and daughters (Lion et al., 2018).”
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    • cites Lion et al., 2018

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    Premisecitation

    Combining action knowledge, demonstration of public commitment, and goal setting among 217 German households significantly improved self-reported food waste prevention behaviors.

    “For example, one food waste prevention intervention demonstrated that combining action knowledge, demonstration of public commitment, and goal setting among 217 German households could significantly improve self-reported food waste prevention behaviors -such as more strategic grocery shopping (Schmidt, 2016).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Schmidt, 2016 source

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    Premisecitation

    95% of food that is thrown away ends up in landfills, and the resulting breakdown contributes considerably to greenhouse gas emissions.

    “And because 95% of food that is thrown away ends up in landfills, the resulting breakdown of wasted food contributes considerably to greenhouse gas emissions (Qi and Roe, 2016).”
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    Premisecitation

    A review of UK household general waste intervention campaigns found a cumulative effect from a range of strategies was more effective than an isolated campaign, and self-weighing was an important motivator.

    “On the other hand, a review of household general waste intervention campaigns in the UK found that a cumulative effect from a range of intervention strategies was more effective than an isolated campaign in reducing food and other types of waste, and that self-weighing was an important motivator in this effort as it provided a cue for participants to acknowledge and disrupt an existing habit (Shar”
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    • cites Sharp et al., 2010 source

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    Premisecitation

    Self-reported food waste was higher among those with negative emotions towards food waste despite greater intentions to reduce food waste.

    “Self-reported food waste was higher among those with negative emotions towards food waste despite greater intentions to reduce food waste (Russell et al., 2017).”
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    Premisecitation

    The primary addition of TPB compared to TRA is perceived behavioral control, or confidence in one's own ability to perform a behavior.

    “The primary addition of TPB compared to TRA is perceived behavioral control, or confidence in one's own ability to perform a behavior (Ajzen, 1991).”
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    Premisecitation

    A study of Brazilian households found excessive purchasing, over-preparation, caring for a pet, avoidance of leftovers, and inappropriate food storage were the primary reasons for food waste.

    “Further, a study of Brazilian households to identify antecedents of food waste found that excessive purchasing, over-preparation, caring for a pet, avoidance of leftovers, and inappropriate food storage were the primary reasons for food waste (Porpino et al., 2015).”
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    Premisecitation

    76% of Americans failed to consume the recommended amount of fruits per day and 87% did not consume the recommended number of vegetable servings per day.

    “Even so, 76% of Americans failed to consume the recommended amount of fruits per day and 87% did not consume the recommended number of vegetable servings per day (Moore and Thompson, 2015).”
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    Premisecitation

    A systematic review found that theory-based treatments could elicit dietary behavior change, and that dietary behavior interventions should incorporate multi-faceted, theory-based approaches.

    “A systematic review of intervention studies using TPB and the TRA to address obesity in adolescents and young adults, for example, found that a variety of theory-based treatments could elicit dietary behavior change, and that dietary behavior interventions should incorporate multi-faceted, theory-based approaches (Hackman and Knowlden, 2014).”
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    • cites Hackman and Knowlden, 2014

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    Premisecitation

    A meta-analysis found that TPB-based behavior change interventions have a mean effect size of 0.50 for changes in behavior, with wide variation in effect sizes for antecedent variables and by behavior change methods.

    “A meta-analysis found that interventions utilizing TPB as a framework for behavior change have a mean effect size of 0.50 for changes in behavior, but a wide range of effect sizes for antecedent variables, and variation in effectiveness based on behavior change methods (Steinmetz, Knappstein, Ajzen, Schmidt, & Kabst, 2016).”
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    • cites Steinmetz, Knappstein, Ajzen, Schmidt, & Kabst, 2016

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    Premisecitation

    Americans' higher opportunity costs of time relative to other countries may provide a potential explanation for higher food waste.

    “Other research has shown that, from an economic perspective, Americans' higher opportunity costs of time relative to other countries may provide a potential explanation for higher food waste, suggesting that better highlighting the economic value of food that is thrown away could be key to intervention strategies (Lusk and Ellison, 2017).”
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    • cites Lusk and Ellison, 2017

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    Premisecitation

    A systematic review of TPB applications to nutrition found that attitude had the strongest relationship with dietary behavioral intention, intention was the most common predictor of behavior, and TPB-based interventions had clear beneficial outcomes.

    “Another systematic review of applications of TPB to nutrition-related behaviors found that, of the constructs, attitude had the strongest relationship with dietary behavioral intention, intention was the most common predictor of behavior, and TPB-based interventions had clear beneficial outcomes (Riebl et al., 2015).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Riebl et al., 2015 source

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    Study design and conductcitation

    Interviews were recorded, transcribed verbatim, checked for accuracy, and analyzed following a qualitative descriptive approach.

    “All interviews were recorded, transcribed verbatim, checked for accuracy, and analyzed following a qualitative descriptive approach employed by this research team in the past (Lacagnina et al., 2017).”
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    • cites Lacagnina et al., 2017

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    Interpretationnone given

    To the authors' knowledge, this is the first household food waste intervention study that included a standardized procedure for assessment of household food waste alongside theoretically based, psychological surveys with strong psychometric properties.

    “To the authors' knowledge, this is the first household food waste intervention study that included a standardized procedure for the assessment of household food waste alongside theoretically based, psychological surveys with strong psychometric properties.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    An informational intervention can be effective in improving food safety behaviors as mediated by TPB constructs, especially when highlighting the behavior-health link.

    “For example, research related to food safety has shown that an informational intervention can be effective in improving food safety behaviors as mediated by TPB constructs, especially when highlighting the behavior-health link in food handling and preparation (Milton and Mullan, 2012).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Milton and Mullan, 2012

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    Premisecitation

    Avoidable food waste in the US results in 113 million metric tons of CO2e every year.

    “Specifically, avoidable food waste in the US results in 113 million metric tons of CO2e (carbon dioxide equivalents) every year (Venkat, 2012).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
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    Premisecitation

    Dietary patterns low in fruits and vegetables are associated with increased risk for major chronic diseases such as cardiovascular disease and cancer.

    “Dietary patterns that are low in fruits and vegetables are generally associated with a number of negative health outcomes, including increased risk for major chronic diseases such as cardiovascular disease and cancer (Aune et al., 2017).”
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    • cites Aune et al., 2017 source

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    Premisecitation

    In the US, landfills are the 3rd largest source of anthropogenic methane emissions.

    “In the US, this issue makes landfills the 3rd largest source of anthropogenic methane emissions in the country (US Department of Agriculture, 2014).”
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    • cites US Department of Agriculture, 2014

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    Premisecitation

    Limitations exist in the current literature, especially reliance on estimations of wasted food rather than actual household food waste collection and weighing, and use of theoretically or psychologically based surveys not previously assessed for construct validity.

    “Nevertheless, limitations exist in the current body of literature, especially a reliance on estimations of wasted food at home rather an actual household food waste collection and weighing to examine effectiveness of programs designed to reduce wasted food, as well as the use of theoretically or psychologically based surveys that have not been previously assessed for construct validity to explain”
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    • cites Reynolds et al., 2019 source

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    A systematic review concluded that multi-faceted approaches to educational interventions based on TRA and TPB were needed, including persuasive messaging alongside educational or other intervention components that leverage technology.

    “And a systematic review exploring both TRA and TPB constructs in relation to dietary interventions concluded that multi-faceted approaches to educational interventions based on these theories were needed, such as including persuasive messaging alongside educational or other intervention components that leverage technology (Hackman and Knowlden, 2014).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Hackman and Knowlden, 2014

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Habits and emotions were important determinants of intentions and current food waste-related behaviors, with a sense of control and normative support leading to stronger intentions to reduce wasted food.

    “Other research integrating several theoretical models to predict food waste behaviors found that habits and emotions were important determinants of intentions and current food waste-related behaviors, with a sense of control and normative support leading to stronger intentions to reduce wasted food (Russell et al., 2017).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Russell et al., 2017 source

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    In the US, 133 billion pounds of food, representing 30% of the total available food supply at the consumer and retail levels, is wasted annually; 10% occurs at retail and 20% among consumers.

    “In the US, 133 billion pounds of food, representing 30% of the total available food supply at the consumer and retail levels, is wasted annually; of this amount, 10% occurs at the retail level and 20% occurs amongst consumers themselves (US Department of Agriculture, 2014).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites US Department of Agriculture, 2014

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  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Most studies on household food waste are observational or cross-sectional, and only a few intervention studies have been reported.

    “To date, however, most studies on household food waste are observational or cross-sectional in nature and only a few intervention studies have been reported in the literature (Reynolds et al., 2019).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Reynolds et al., 2019 source

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    In Qatar, motives, financial attitudes, planning, surplus, social relationships, and Ramadan were significantly associated with food waste.

    “Findings indicated that motives, financial attitudes, planning, surplus, social relationships, and Ramadan were significantly associated with food waste (Aktas et al., 2018).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Aktas et al., 2018 source

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Global estimates suggest that consumer-level food waste rates in developed countries were four times those of developing countries (28% vs 7%).

    “Global estimates suggest that rates of food waste at the consumer level in developed countries, generally, were four times that of developing countries (28% of available food compared to 7%; Lipinski, et al., 2013).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Lipinski, et al., 2013

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    National estimates from the US suggest food losses represent over $161 billion, and at the household level could equate to well over $800-900 USD of lost value per year for families with children.

    “National estimates from the US suggest that food losses represent over $161 billion (US Department of Agriculture, 2014), and at the household level, could equate to well over $800-900 USD of lost value per year for families with children, depending on the method of estimation (Russell, et al., 2017;Massow, et al., 2019).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites US Department of Agriculture, 2014

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    • cites Russell, et al., 2017 source

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    • cites Massow, et al., 2019 source

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  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    Researchers have recently called for more and better-designed food waste reduction interventions at the household level.

    “Given this important but limited advancement of the literature on household food waste reduction, researchers have recently called for more and better-designed food waste reduction interventions at the household level (Hebrok and Boks, 2017;Stockli et al., 2018).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Hebrok and Boks, 2017 source

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    • cites Stockli et al., 2018 source

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Prior research has identified opportunities for interventions including strategies for strategic shopping, efficient use of food in the home, and proper storage.

    “Second, numerous researchers have already identified opportunities for interventions that were used in this study, including strategies for strategic shopping, efficient use of food in the home, and proper storage (Hebrok and Boks, 2017;Parizeau et al., 2015).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Hebrok and Boks, 2017 source

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    • cites Parizeau et al., 2015 source

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  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Low-income households face issues both similar and dissimilar to other households.

    “One prior study suggested that low-income households face issues both similar and dissimilar to other households (Porpino et al., 2015).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Porpino et al., 2015 source

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  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Previous studies have described food waste behaviors and outcomes from the perspective of motivators, barriers, beliefs, attitudes, and other antecedents, but none have yet applied this information to an intervention and then objectively measured impacts on food waste.

    “First, although previous studies have gone far in describing food waste behaviors and outcomes from the perspective of motivators, barriers, beliefs, attitudes, and other antecedents (Parizeau et al., 2015;Porpino et al, 2015;Visschers et al., 2015), none have yet applied this information to an intervention and then objectively measured impacts on food waste.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Parizeau et al., 2015 source

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    • cites Porpino et al, 2015 source

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    • cites Visschers et al., 2015 source

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    It remains unclear which socio-demographics best predict higher or lower levels of food waste.

    “But other research notes that the picture remains unclear in terms of which which socio-demographics best predict higher or lower levels of food waste (Schmidt, 2016;Schanes et al., 2018).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Schmidt, 2016 source

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    • cites Schanes et al., 2018 source

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Schanes and colleagues (2018) identify a host of important areas for policy intervention, including date labels, packaging for longer shelf life, retailer purchasing practices, and others.

    “Schanes and colleagues (2018) identify a host of important areas for policy intervention, including date labels, packaging for longer shelf life, retailer purchasing practices, and others.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Schanes et al., 2018 source

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  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    Schmidt (2016) described the need to personalize food waste information in order to make it more utilizable and applicable to individual circumstances.

    “Importantly, however, while these types of information have been identified as key topics on which to focus, Schmidt (2016) has also described the need to personalize this information in order to make it more utilizable and applicable to individual circumstances.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Schmidt, 2016 source

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  • May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductcitation

    Overall attrition in the study was 18.5%, which was no greater than what is commonly seen in health behavior change studies.

    “And although some attrition occurred that was in part associated with the burden of food waste collection, the overall attrition in the study (18.5%) was no greater than what is commonly seen in health behavior change studies (Crutzen et al., 2015).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Crutzen et al., 2015 source

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  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductown data

    A Bonferroni correction for multiple comparisons set statistical significance at alpha = 0.01.

    “A Bonferroni correction for multiple comparisons indicated that statistical significance was set at alpha = 0.01.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Interpretationnone given

    This study introduced a simple methodology to quantify and track food waste in the home over the course of 7 weeks.

    “This study introduced a simple methodology to quantify and track food waste in the home over the course of 7 weeks.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Low-income households may strive for abundance for a host of reasons, potentially leading to higher levels of food waste.

    “Hebrok and Boks (2017), for example, suggested that low-income households may strive for abundance for a host of reasons, potentially leading to higher levels of food waste.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Hebrok and Boks, 2017 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    This study demonstrated the impact of an educational, awareness-building intervention informed by previous literature on food waste, using behavior change theory, measures of food waste assessed for adequate psychometric properties, and the framing of values including health, environment, and finances.

    “This study demonstrated the impact of an educational, awarenessbuilding intervention informed by previous literature on food waste, and did so using behavior change theory, measures of food waste that were assessed for adequate psychometric properties, and the framing of values often espoused to be important in relation to food waste (including health, environment, and finances; Schanes et al., 2”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Schanes et al., 2018 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • Rests on an assumption: The observed reductions in household food waste were caused by the Waste Watchers intervention rather than by other factors such as self-monitoring or seasonal variation.

  • May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductnone given

    The study was conducted in a specific geographical region and only among those living in single-family homes.

    “In particular, the study was conducted in a specific geographical region, and only among those living in single-family homes.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductnone given

    The intervention phase of this study was only 5 weeks in duration.

    “Finally, the intervention phase of this study was only 5 weeks in duration.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
73 of 73

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Participants accurately collected, weighed, and reported their household food waste throughout the study.

    “Participants were trained on how to properly collect, weigh, and report their weekly household food waste throughout the duration of the study.”
    “The research team developed a standard protocol which was used to train participants on how to collect and log their household food waste throughout the duration of the study.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Participants accessed and engaged with the intervention website modules as instructed.

    “Participants were instructed to access one module per week and were provided weekly reminders to visit the site and that week's content.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The observed pre-post reduction in household food waste is attributable to the educational intervention rather than to self-weighing, reactivity, seasonal or other time-varying factors.

    “The present study demonstrated that an educational intervention delivered virtually was effective in reducing food waste by 27.85% among participating households.”
    “The study, referred to as Waste Watchers, followed a single group, pre-post-test design.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The income difference between completers and dropouts did not bias the intervention effect estimates.

    “However, chi-square and Mann-Whitney analyses for categorical and continuous demographic data, respectively, indicated that the only significant difference between those that completed the intervention and those that dropped out was income (x 2 = 21.94,df = 11, p = .03);completers reported higher income than non-completers.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    This is the first study of its kind pairing a theoretically informed intervention to reduce household food waste with both a standardized procedure of food waste assessment and food waste-related behavioral constructs with strong psychometric properties.

    “To the authors' knowledge, this is the first study of its kind pairing a theoretically informed intervention to reduce household food waste with both a standardized procedure of food waste assessment and food waste-related behavioral constructs with strong psychometric properties.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The observed reductions in household food waste were caused by the Waste Watchers intervention rather than by other factors such as self-monitoring or seasonal variation.

    “Future studies should include a control group that just collects and measures their food waste to compare against the experimental group, as this activity on its own may increase awareness and influence food waste reduction.”
6 of 6

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

  • Around 27.85% reduction in food waste was reported in Arizona by creating awareness through educational interventions.

    “Around 27.85% reduction in food waste were reported in Arizona by creating awareness through educational interventions [21].”

    From Food Waste Biorefinery: Pathway towards Circular Bioeconomy (2021) · cites this paper as [21]

Statistics recomputed

Every reported test result, recomputed from its test statistic and degrees of freedom. A result shows as not adding up only once an independent check has confirmed it.

  • Consistentz = -2.31reported p = .021 · recomputed p = .021

    “(z = -2.31,p = .021”

1 of 1

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.

  • PBC score exceeds its stated maximum

    Minor

    The two PBC items are scored from 0 to 4 and averaged, so a PBC score cannot exceed 4. Table 5 gives a post-intervention interquartile range extending to 4.50.

  • Reported attitude median is incompatible with the stated four-item scale

    Minor

    Averaging four items scored in whole numbers from 1 to 7 produces scores in increments of 0.25; a median of such scores cannot round to 5.67. Table 5 nevertheless reports 5.67 as the baseline attitude median.

2 of 2

The citation lists haven’t been fetched yet

References 38 · Cited by 79

Authors
Wharton, C., Vizcaino, M., Berardy, A., & Opejin, A.
Affiliations
  • Arizona State University (US)
  • Loma Linda University (US)
Corresponding author
Wharton, Christopher
ORCID
Venue
Resources, Conservation and Recycling
Publisher
Elsevier BV
Published
2021-01
Volume
164
Pages
105109
ISSN
0921-3449 (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.1016/j.resconrec.2020.105109
OpenAlex
W3080694077
Cited by
79
References
38
Citations by year
2026: 13 · 2025: 20 · 2024: 12 · 2023: 18 · 2022: 9 · 2021: 7
FWCI
5.51
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
Resources Conservation and Recycling (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
Funders
Arizona State University
Topics
  • Life Sciences › Agricultural and Biological Sciences › Food Science › Food Waste Reduction and Sustainability
  • Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Management, Monitoring, Policy and Law › Environmental Education and Sustainability
  • Health Sciences › Nursing › Nutrition and Dietetics › Nutrition, Health and Food Behavior
Keywords
household food waste, food waste reduction, educational intervention, behavior change, online learning, Phoenix, Arizona

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-10-10.

Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-10-10.

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