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Cited by 191Biofuel production and bioconversionCatalysis for Biomass ConversionBioeconomy and Sustainability Development

Food Waste Biorefinery: Pathway towards Circular Bioeconomy

Open access
Tsegaye, Bahiru, Jaiswal, Swarna, Jaiswal, Amit K.·2021·Foods
DOI 10.3390/foods10061174PMC PMC8225055
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Abstract

Food waste biorefineries for the production of biofuels, platform chemicals and other bio-based materials can significantly reduce a huge environmental burden and provide sustainable resources for the production of chemicals and materials. This will significantly contribute to the transition of the linear based economy to a more circular economy. A variety of chemicals, biofuels and materials can be produced from food waste by the integrated biorefinery approach. This enhances the bioeconomy and helps toward the design of more green, ecofriendly, and sustainable methods of material productions that contribute to sustainable development goals. The waste biorefinery is a tool to achieve a value-added product that can provide a better utilization of materials and resources while minimizing and/or eliminating environmental impacts. Recently, food waste biorefineries have gained momentum for the production of biofuels, chemicals, and bio-based materials due to the shifting of regulations and policies towards sustainable development. This review attempts to explore the state of the art of food waste biorefinery and the products associated with it.

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

This review surveys food waste biorefinery pathways for converting food waste into biofuels, platform chemicals, biopolymers, proteins/enzymes, biofertilizers, and bioactive compounds. It reports promising laboratory and pilot yields but concludes that food waste valorization remains at an infant stage, with scale-up limited by feedstock variability, process efficiency, and economics.

Key findings

  • Global food waste is large and economically costly: FAO estimates one-third of food produced is lost in the supply chain/harvesting, worth about USD 1 trillion annually; UNEP reports about 931 million tons generated globally in 2019; roughly 40% of total food produced is wasted. The US generated about 63.1 million tons in 2018, while the EU generates around 88 million tons annually (EUR 143 billion), with households accounting for about 70%.
  • Biological conversion yields vary by process and condition: anaerobic digestion produced 276.5 mL CH4/g VS at 34 °C versus 307.5 mL CH4/g VS at 55 °C, and co-digestion of sewage sludge:food waste:poultry litter at 2:1:1 reached 640 L/kg VS. Dark fermentation yielded 1.77 mol H2/mol hexose, while sequential dark fermentation and photofermentation increased biohydrogen 2.5-fold to 5.4 mol H2/mol hexose; electro-fermentation improved methane production by 26.3% when VFAs were limited to 129 mg/L.
  • Integrated and pretreated systems improved product recovery: starchy wastewater enriched with poultry manure raised biohydrogen from 4.11 to 5.03 mol/kg COD; thermal pretreatment gave 3.24 L/L biohydrogen and 12.05 mol H2/kg COD; NiO and CoO nanoparticles enhanced biohydrogen yields by 109% and 90%, respectively. Platform chemical examples include 52 g/L lactic acid, 72.86% medium-chain carboxylic acid yield, and simultaneous recovery of 83.09% phosphorus, 93.9% purity vivianite, and 7671 mg COD/L VFAs.
  • Product and economic findings are mixed: PHBV production reached 66% from whey and 61.5% from cassava starch; single-cell protein yield reached 41.02%, protease 101.98 U/mL, and lipase 5.83 U/mL. Techno-economic examples include PHA at EUR 1.41–1.64/kg with biodiesel at EUR 0.97/L and payback of 3.25–4.5 years, and up to 56 profitable European biorefineries under assumed lycopene and β-carotene prices of EUR 40,000/kg and EUR 4,000/kg; however, the paper states industrial-scale biorefineries are currently not economically viable compared with fossil fuel equivalents.

Methods

  • Design: a review of the state of the art of food waste biorefineries, described by the authors as a systematic review, covering biological, thermochemical, and chemical conversion pathways plus integrated approaches.
  • Data: published literature and secondary data, including FAO, UNEP, US EPA, EU, and cited experimental/techno-economic studies; tables summarize food waste generation, biofuels, platform chemicals, and proteins/enzymes.
  • Analysis: qualitative synthesis of conversion routes, product yields, and techno-economic/profitability findings from cited studies; no primary experiments, meta-analysis, or formal search protocol are reported.

Limitations

  • Stated by the paper: food waste valorization is still in its infant stage; variation in food waste type and composition is a challenge; product efficiency and production cost are main unresolved issues; there are no standard procedures for extracting bioactive compounds; food waste data gaps exist in developing countries; and techno-economic assessments depend on market stability, with overproduction a concern.
  • Stated by the paper: large-scale biorefinery implementation carries feedstock price/supply, policy, market, and technological risks, and industrial-scale biorefineries are currently not economically viable relative to fossil fuel equivalents.
  • Evident from the text: as a review, it does not report a formal systematic search strategy, inclusion/exclusion criteria, or quantitative meta-analysis, and the cited yields come from heterogeneous feedstocks, process conditions, and scales, limiting direct comparability.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.3390/foods10061174

Cites

Statistics

Nothing to recompute.

Claims the paper makes

0 of 126 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged

  • Premisecitation

    Due to their homogeneity, food waste has high potential for production of biofuels, platform chemicals and bio-based materials by applying the concept of biorefinery.

    “Due to their homogeneity, food waste has high potential for the production of biofuels, platform chemicals and bio-based materials by applying the concept of biorefinery [4,5].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [4] Ong, 2018, Trends in food waste valorization for the production of chemicals, materials and fuels: Case study South and Southeast Asia, Bioresour. Technol. source

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    • cites [5] Matharu, 2016, Opportunity for high value-added chemicals from food supply chain wastes, Bioresour. Technol. source

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  • Premisecitation

    Patinvoh et al. observed that the yield of VFAs was enhanced by controlling the pH of the acidogenesis process at pH 6 during anaerobic digestion of food waste.

    “A study carried out by Patinvoh et al. [34] observed that the yield of VFAs was enhanced by controlling the pH of acidogenesis process (at pH 6) during the anaerobic digestion of food waste [34].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [34] Patinvoh, 2020, Factors influencing volatile fatty acids production from food wastes via anaerobic digestion production, Bioengineered source

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  • Interpretationcitation

    Integration of dark fermentation and photofermentation significantly improves biohydrogen yield.

    “The integration of dark fermentation and photofermentation significantly improves the biohydrogen yield.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Premisecitation

    Anaerobic digestion of mixtures of food waste, poultry litter, and sewage sludge enhanced biogas yield to 640 L/kg VS when mixed in the ratio 2:1:1 sewage sludge:food waste:poultry litter.

    “The anaerobic digestion of mixtures of food waste, poultry litter, and sewage sludge enhanced the biogas yield to 640 L/kg VS when mixed in the ratio of 2:1:1, sewage sludge: food waste: poultry litter [32].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [32] Lohani, S.P., Shakya, S., Gurung, P., Dhungana, B., Paudel, D., and Mainali, B. (2021). Anaerobic co-digestion of food waste, poultry litter and sewage sludge: Seasonal performance under ambient condition and model evaluation. Energy Sources Part A Recover. Util. Environ. Eff. source

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  • Premisecitation

    The co-existence of a wide range of microorganisms can significantly reduce the yields of biohydrogen by either utilizing the produced biohydrogen or metabolizing the substrate into other products.

    “The co-existence of a wide range of microorganisms can significantly reduce the yields of biohydrogen by either utilizing the produced biohydrogen or metabolizing the substrate into other products [42].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [42] Cabrol, 2017, Microbial ecology of fermentative hydrogen producing bioprocesses: Useful insights for driving the ecosystem function, FEMS Microbiol. Rev. source

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  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 45
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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    In developing countries, a significant amount of food was wasted in the pre-harvest and post-harvest stage, while in developed nations it was wasted in the consumption stage.

    “In developing countries (low-income countries), a significant amount of food was wasted in the pre-harvest and post-harvest stage while in the developed nations it was wasted in the consumption stage [10,11].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [10] Chalak, 2016, The global economic and regulatory determinants of household food waste generation: A cross-country analysis, Waste Manag. source

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    • cites [11] FAO (2014). Food Wastage Footprint: Fool Cost–Accounting, FAO.

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The drink industries generate around 26% of total food waste, followed by the dairy industry at 21%, fruit and vegetable industry at 14.8%, and cereal industry at 12.9%.

    “The drink industries are leading by generating around 26% of the total food waste, followed by the dairy industry which contributes 21%, fruit and vegetable industry 14.8%, and cereal industry 12.9% [2].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [2] Baiano, 2014, Recovery of biomolecules from food wastes—A review, Molecules source

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Premisenone given

    Food waste biorefineries have gained momentum for production of biofuels, chemicals, and bio-based materials due to shifting regulations and policies towards sustainable development.

    “Recently, food waste biorefineries have gained momentum for the production of biofuels, chemicals, and bio-based materials due to the shifting of regulations and policies towards sustainable development.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

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    Premisecitation

    According to US EPA estimates, about 63.1 million tons of food waste was generated in the United States in 2018.

    “According to the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) estimates, about 63.1 million tons of food waste was generated in United states in the year 2018 [12].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [12] United States Environmental Protection Agency (2018). 2018 Wasted Food Report.

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    Premisecitation

    According to FAO, one third of the total food produced was lost in the supply chain and harvesting, contributing to an estimated value of USD 1 trillion annual loss.

    “According to the United Nations Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO), 1/3 of the total food produced was lost in the supply chain and harvesting which contributed to the estimated value of USD 1 trillion annual loss [1].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [1] FAO (2011). Global Food Losses and Food Waste—Extent, Causes and Prevention, FAO.

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    Premisecitation

    The United Nations Sustainable Development Goals have targeted a 50% reduction in food waste by 2030.

    “The United Nation’s SDGs have targeted a 50% reduction in food waste by 2030 [3].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [3] UN (2015). Transforming Our World: The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development Preamble, United Nations.

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    The integration of processes that produce products and materials in a more circular and sustainable way is the only possible scenario for food waste valorization that achieves the sustainable development goals.

    “The integration of processes that produce products and materials in a more circular and sustainable way is the only possible scenario for food waste valorization that achieves the sustainable development goals.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    A variety of chemicals, biofuels and materials can be produced from food waste by the integrated biorefinery approach.

    “A variety of chemicals, biofuels and materials can be produced from food waste by the integrated biorefinery approach.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

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    Premisecitation

    The EU generates around 88 million tons of food waste annually, with an estimated monetary value of EUR 143 billion, and households account for about 70% of the total waste.

    “The EU generates around 88 million tons of food waste (estimated monitory value of EUR 143 billion) annually where house hold accounts about 70% of the total waste [13].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [13] FUSIONS (2016). Estimates of European Food Waste Levels, European Commission.

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    Premisecitation

    About 931 million tons of food waste were generated across the globe in 2019.

    “According to the UN Environment Program Food Waste Index report of 2021, about 931 million tons of food waste were generated across the globe in the year 2019 [9].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [9] United Nations Environment Programme (2021). Food Waste Index, United Nations.

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    Waste biorefinery is a tool to achieve a value-added product that provides better utilization of materials and resources while minimizing and/or eliminating environmental impacts.

    “The waste biorefinery is a tool to achieve a value-added product that can provide a better utilization of materials and resources while minimizing and/or eliminating environmental impacts.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Food waste biorefinery enhances the bioeconomy and helps design green, ecofriendly, and sustainable methods of material production that contribute to sustainable development goals.

    “This enhances the bioeconomy and helps toward the design of more green, ecofriendly, and sustainable methods of material productions that contribute to sustainable development goals.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    Food waste biorefineries for producing biofuels, platform chemicals and other bio-based materials can significantly reduce environmental burden and provide sustainable resources for chemicals and materials.

    “Food waste biorefineries for the production of biofuels, platform chemicals and other bio-based materials can significantly reduce a huge environmental burden and provide sustainable resources for the production of chemicals and materials.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Valorization of food waste under the biorefinery framework has recently gained momentum for implementation and achievement of sustainable development goals policies set by the European Union.

    “The valorization of food waste under the biorefinery framework has recently gained momentum for the implementation and achievement of the sustainable development goals policies set by the European Unions (EU), such as the bioeconomy strategy and the circular economy goals of the EU [6,7,8].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [6] EU (2018). A Sustainable Bioeconomy for Europe: Strengthening the Connection between Economy, Society and the Environment, European Commission.

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    • cites [7] EU (2015). Closing the Loop—An EU Action Plan for the Circular Economy, Europe Union.

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    • cites [8] Caldeira, 2018, Techno-economic and profitability analysis of food waste biorefineries at European level, Bioresour. Technol. source

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationreasoning

    Food waste biorefineries contribute to the transition from a linear based economy to a more circular economy.

    “This will significantly contribute to the transition of the linear based economy to a more circular economy.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Food waste generation in Europe ranges from 158 to 298 kg/person/year and globally from 194 to 389 kg/person/year.

    “The food waste generation in Europe and in the global scale ranges from 158 kg/person/year to 298 kg/person/year and 194 kg/person/year to 389 kg/person/year, respectively [14].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [14] Corrado, 2018, Food waste accounting along global and European food supply chains: State of the art and outlook, Waste Manag. source

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

    Interpretationreasoning

    Converting food waste into biofuels, bio-based fertilizers, bio-based enzymes, chemicals, proteins and other bio-based molecules and materials will accelerate the sustainable development goals.

    “Therefore, converting food waste into biofuels, bio-based fertilizers, bio-based enzymes, chemicals, proteins and other bio-based molecules and materials will accelerate the sustainable development goals.”
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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    France alone generates around 5.8-9 million tons of food waste annually, which is 20-30 kg/year/person.

    “France alone generates around 5.8–9 million tons of food waste annually, which is 20–30 kg/year/person [17,18].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [17] Wen, 2017, A review of global strategies promoting the conversion of food waste to bioenergy via anaerobic digestion, Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. source

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    • cites [18] Garot, G. (2015). Lutte Contre Le Gaspillage Alimentaire: Propositions Pour Une Politique Publique, Prime Minster Office.

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    Premisecitation

    Immobilization of microbial cells is an effective approach to overcome over washing, while other drawbacks need to be resolved.

    “The immobilization of microbial cells is an effective approach to overcome the over washing, while other drawbacks need to be resolved [63].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [63] Pott, 2020, Transparent polyvinyl-alcohol cryogel as immobilisation matrix for continuous biohydrogen production by phototrophic bacteria, Biotechnol. Biofuels

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    Premisecitation

    Dark fermentation using food waste at mesophilic temperature (34 °C) led to a biohydrogen yield of 53.5 mL H2/g VS, while 37.6 mL H2/g VS were obtained at thermophilic temperature (55 °C).

    “Dark fermentation using food waste at the mesophilic temperature of 34 °C led to a biohydrogen yield of 53.5 mL H2/g VS, while 37.6 mL H2/g VS were obtained at the thermophilic temperature of 55 °C [33].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [33] Ghimire, A., Luongo, V., Frunzo, L., Lens, P.N., Pirozzi, F., and Esposito, G. (2021). Biohythane production from food waste in a two-stage process: Assessing the energy recovery potential. Environ. Technol. source

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    Premisecitation

    According to a US Department of Agriculture report, 30% of food was wasted at the consumer and retail levels, about 66.5 million tons, causing a financial loss of USD 161 billion annually.

    “According to a US Department of Agriculture report, 30% of food was wasted at the consumer and retail levels, which is about 66.5 million tons, causing a financial loss of USD 161 billion annually [19].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [19] Buzby, J.C., Wells, H.F., and Hyman, J. (2014). The Estimated Amount, Value, and Calories of Postharvest Food Losses at the Retail and Consumer Levels. source

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    Premisecitation

    The presence of inhibitory compounds in the waste, lower light penetrations due to turbidity, and the rate of cell wash out exceeding specific growth rates are major challenges hindering production of biohydrogen by photofermentation.

    “The presence of inhibitory compounds in the waste, lower light penetrations due to the turbidity of the waste, and the rate of cell wash out exceeding the specific growth rates are some of the major challenges hindering the production of biohydrogen by photofermentation [61,62].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [61] Hay, 2017, Effect of adding brewery wastewater to pulp and paper mill effluent to enhance the photofermentation process: Wastewater characteristics, biohydrogen production, overall performance, and kinetic modeling, Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. source

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    • cites [62] Ghosh, 2017, Hydrogen from food processing wastes via photofermentation using Purple Non-sulfur Bacteria (PNSB)—A review, Energy Convers. Manag. source

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    Implementing the core principles of the circular bioeconomy is the best way to alleviate the problems associated with food waste.

    “Implementing the core principles of the circular bioeconomy is the best way to alleviate the problems associated with food waste.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

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    Premisecitation

    Enriching starchy waste-water with poultry manure to increase the nitrogen supplement in dark fermentation enhanced biohydrogen yield from 4.11 mol/kg COD to 5.03 mol/kg COD, while the remaining spent was utilized for biodiesel production by Chlamydomonas reinhardtii.

    “Enriching starchy waste-water with poultry manure to increase the nitrogen supplement in dark fermentation enhanced the biohydrogen yield from 4.11 mol/kg COD (chemical oxygen demand) to 5.03 mol/kg COD, while the remaining spent was utilized for biodiesel production by Chlamydomonas reinhardtii [64].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [64] Radhakrishnan, R., Banerjee, S., Banerjee, S., Singh, V., and Das, D. (2021). Sustainable approach for the treatment of poultry manure and starchy wastewater by integrating dark fermentation and microalgal cultivation. J. Mater. Cycles Waste Manag. source

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationnone given

    The combination of two or more biorefinery processes in an integrated manner has been attracting attention due to higher conversion efficiencies.

    “The combination of two or more of the above processes in an integrated manner has been attracting the attention of many researchers due to higher conversion efficiencies.”
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    Interpretationcitation

    Food waste causes significant socioeconomic and environmental costs, and recovery of this resource could have a huge positive impact on the environment and society.

    “Food waste causes a significant amount of socioeconomic and environmental costs, and the recovery of this resource could have a huge positive impact on the environment and society.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

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    Premisecitation

    The production cost of 1 kg of hydrogen by photofermentation was estimated to be about EUR 2.83, while electrolysis-based technology costs from EUR 4-24.

    “The production cost of 1 kg of hydrogen by photofermentation was estimated to be about EUR 2.83, while electrolysis-based technology costs from EUR 4–24 [60].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [60] Sinigaglia, 2017, Production, storage, fuel stations of hydrogen and its utilization in automotive applications-a review, Int. J. Hydrogen Energy source

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    Premisecitation

    For food waste valorization, it is essential to know the compositions, the interaction of its components, and the desired final products for choosing an efficient biorefinery process.

    “For food waste valorization, it is essential to know the compositions, the interaction of its components, and the desired final products for choosing an efficient biorefinery process [23].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [23] Garcia, 2018, Valorization of food waste based on its composition through the concept of biorefinery, Curr. Opin. Green Sustain. Chem. source

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    Premisecitation

    Around 27.85% reduction in food waste was reported in Arizona by creating awareness through educational interventions.

    “Around 27.85% reduction in food waste were reported in Arizona by creating awareness through educational interventions [21].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [21] Wharton, 2021, Waste watchers: A food waste reduction intervention among households in Arizona, Resour. Conserv. Recycl. source

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    Food waste biorefinery is considered as a promising technology to valorize waste and minimize environmental challenges through efficient utilization of resources.

    “Food waste biorefinery is considered as a promising technology to valorize waste and minimize environmental challenges through efficient utilization of resources.”
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    Interpretationnone given

    The integrated food waste biorefinery process has potential for opening up the way for the circular economy.

    “These show the potential of the integrated food waste biorefinery process for opening up the way for the circular economy.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

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    Premisecitation

    The two-stage sequential system is more promising than single stage for integrated dark fermentation and photofermentation, as the metabolic products of dark fermentation sometimes require treatment and different optimal conditions.

    “The two-stage system (sequential) is more promising, as the metabolic products of dark fermentation sometimes require treatment and different optimal conditions [69].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [69] Rai, 2016, Integrated dark- and photo-fermentation: Recent advances and provisions for improvement, Int. J. Hydrogen Energy source

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    Premisecitation

    Acetate and butyrate pathways are linked to higher biohydrogen yields while alcohol and lactate production pathways are linked with lower biohydrogen yields.

    “Acetate and butyrate pathways are linked to higher biohydrogen yields while alcohol and lactate production pathways are linked with lower biohydrogen yields [43,44].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [43] Saady, 2013, Homoacetogenesis during hydrogen production by mixed cultures dark fermentation: Unresolved challenge, Int. J. Hydrogen Energy source

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    • cites [44] Liu, 2013, Redox potential control and applications in microaerobic and anaerobic fermentations, Biotechnol. Adv. source

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Behavioral effectiveness was observed in household food waste prevention via psychological based intervention.

    “Behavioral effectiveness was also observed in household food waste prevention via psychological based intervention [22].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [22] Schmidt, 2016, Explaining and promoting household food waste-prevention by an environmental psychological based intervention study, Resour. Conserv. Recycl. source

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  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    Integrated approaches improve the economics of food waste treatments, enhance product yields, and reduce current high production costs.

    “Integrated approaches are considered in order to improve the economics of food waste treatments, enhancing product yields, and reducing the current high production costs.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

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    Premisecitation

    About 95% of this food waste ended up in landfill, causing about 113 million tons of carbon dioxide equivalence annually.

    “About 95% of this food waste ended up in landfill, which causes a significant amount of anthropogenic methane emissions—about 113 million tons of carbon dioxide equivalence annually [19,20].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [19] Buzby, J.C., Wells, H.F., and Hyman, J. (2014). The Estimated Amount, Value, and Calories of Postharvest Food Losses at the Retail and Consumer Levels. source

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    • cites [20] Venkat, 2012, ClimateChangeImpactofUSFoodWaste.pdf, Int. J. Food Syst. Dyn.

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    Premisecitation

    Nguyen et al. studied single stage dark fermentation of food waste mixed with condensed molasses to produce biohythane; biogas comprising 10-60% H2 and 5-20% CH4 was obtained depending on the ratio of food to microorganism.

    “Nguyen et al. [41] studied the single stage dark fermentation of food waste mixed with condensed molasses to produce biohythane (H2 + CH4). Biogas comprising 10–60% H2, and 5–20% CH4 was obtained depending on the ratio of food to microorganism [41].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [41] Nguyen, M.T., Hung, P., and Vo, T. (2020). Effect of food to microorganisms (F/M) ratio on biohythane production via single-stage dark fermentation. Int. J. Hydrogen Energy.

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    Adjustment of reactor configurations for utilization of intermediate products during co-culturing or sequential photofermentation can greatly enhance biohydrogen yield.

    “Adjustment of the reactor configurations for utilization of the intermediate products during co-culturing or sequential photofermentation can greatly enhance the biohydrogen yield.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

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    Premisecitation

    Anaerobic digestion of food waste for methane production at mesophilic temperature (34 °C) generated 276.5 mL CH4/g VS, while 307.5 mL CH4/g VS was obtained at thermophilic temperature (55 °C).

    “The anaerobic digestion of food waste for methane production at mesophilic temperature (34 °C) generated 276.5 mL CH4/g VS while 307.5 mL CH4/g VS was obtained at the thermophilic temperature of 55 °C [33].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [33] Ghimire, A., Luongo, V., Frunzo, L., Lens, P.N., Pirozzi, F., and Esposito, G. (2021). Biohythane production from food waste in a two-stage process: Assessing the energy recovery potential. Environ. Technol. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    Products obtained from waste via biorefinery will minimize fossil-fuel dependency and switch towards circular economy.

    “The products obtained from waste via biorefinery will minimize fossil-fuel dependency and switches towards circular economy.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    Optimizing fermentation conditions significantly enhances biohydrogen yield but is far from reaching the near theoretical yield.

    “Optimizing the fermentation conditions significantly enhances the biohydrogen yield but is far from reaching the near theoretical yield.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Premisenone given

    Numerous products such as protein, animal feed, enzymes, organic acids, flavors and colorants, bio-fertilizers, bioplastics and biofuels can be produced simultaneously and sequentially from food waste by applying the concept of biorefinery.

    “Numerous products such as protein, animal feed, enzymes, organic acids, flavors and colorants, bio-fertilizers, bioplastics and biofuels can be produced simultaneously and sequentially from food waste by applying the concept of biorefinery.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Single cell proteins can be obtained by harvesting and drying microbial biomass.

    “Single cell proteins can be obtained by harvesting and drying the microbial biomass [111].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [111] Zepka, 2008, Production and biochemical profile of the microalgae Aphanothece microscopica Nägeli submitted to different drying conditions, Chem. Eng. Process. Process Intensif. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Optimal growth condition for K. marxianus IMB3 was 30 °C and pH 7, and for kefir culture and S. cerevisiae AXAZ-1 was 30 °C and pH 5.5.

    “The optimal growth condition for K. marxianus IMB3 was 30 °C and pH 7 and kefir culture and S. cerevisiae AXAZ-1 was 30 °C and pH 5.5 [113].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [113] Aggelopoulos, 2014, Solid state fermentation of food waste mixtures for single cell protein, aroma volatiles and fat production, Food Chem. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    pH affects the concentration of acetic acid and lactic acid, and lower pH favors their accumulation in co-fermentation.

    “They observed pH affects the concentration of acetic acid and lactic acid and lower pH favors their accumulations [87].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [87] Astals, 2021, Assessing the potential of waste activated sludge and food waste co-fermentation for carboxylic acids production, Sci. Total Environ. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Valorization of shrimp waste by Haloferax lucentensis GUBF-2 MG076078 produced high protease enzyme (101.98 U/mL), while highest lipase enzyme (5.83 U/mL) was produced from coconut oil cake at optimal conditions, pH 6, NaCl 30% and temperature 42 °C.

    “Valorization of shrimp waste by Haloferax lucentensis GUBF-2 MG076078 produced high protease enzyme (101.98 U/mL) while highest lipase enzyme (5.83 U/mL) was produced from coconut oil cake at optimal conditions, pH 6, NaCl 30% and temperature 42 °C [118].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [118] Mg, 2021, Valorization of low-cost agro-wastes residues for the maximum production of protease and lipase haloextremozymes by Haloferax lucentensis, Process Biochem. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Complete valorization of date byproducts resulted in 292 mL H2/g VS and 235 mL CH4/g VS accompanied with date syrup production via hot water extraction, resulting in syrup content of 35.5% sucrose, 11.8% glucose and 13.17% fructose.

    “The complete valorization of date byproducts (inedible and discarded part of date fruit) resulted in 292 mL H2/g VS and 235 mL CH4/g VS accompanied with date syrup production via hot water extraction of the byproduct, which resulted in syrup content of 35.5% sucrose, 11.8% glucose and 13.17% fructose [74].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [74] Dauptain, 2021, New sustainable bioconversion concept of date by-products (Phoenix dactylifera L.) to biohydrogen, biogas and date-syrup, Int. J. Hydrogen Energy source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Single cell protein is a good source of essential amino acids and has a potential of bulk production within short time, hence it may replace expensive sources of protein.

    “Single cell protein is a good source of essential amino acids and has a potential of bulk production within short time, hence it may replace expensive sources of protein [116].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [116] Sharif, 2021, Single cell protein: Sources, mechanism of production, nutritional value and its uses in aquaculture nutrition, Aquaculture source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Kefir culture produced about 4 kg of aroma compound pinene per ton of food waste, while S. cerevisiae AXAZ-1 produced 38.5% protein.

    “Kefir culture produced about 4 kg of the aroma compound pinene per ton of the food waste while S. cerevisiae AXAZ-1 produced 38.5% protein [113].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [113] Aggelopoulos, 2014, Solid state fermentation of food waste mixtures for single cell protein, aroma volatiles and fat production, Food Chem. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Various biopolymers from food wastes such as PHAs, PBAT, PHB, polylactic acid and polyesters have been identified and investigated and promising results are obtained.

    “Various biopolymers from food wastes such as PHAs, polybutylene adipate terephthalate (PBAT), polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB), polylactic acid and polyesters have been identified and investigated and promising results are obtained [108,109,110].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [108] Prieto, 2017, Optimization of an integrated algae-based biore fi nery for the production of biodiesel, astaxanthin and PHB, Energy source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [109] Novak, 2015, Mathematical Modelling as a Tool for Optimized PHA Production, Chem. Biochem. Eng. Q. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [110] Bueno, 2014, Techno-economic evaluation of the production of polyesters from glycerol and adipic acid, Chem. Eng. Res. Des. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Biorefinery of food waste can achieve goals of sustainable development and productions and reduces production costs of materials and chemicals significantly.

    “Therefore, this can not only achieve the goals of sustainable development and productions but also reduces production costs of materials and chemicals significantly.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Food waste are rich in carbohydrates and proteins and are potential sources of biopolymers.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Addition of NaCl favored the production of butyric acid and inhibited methanogenesis while favoring acidogenesis, contributing to higher biohydrogen production.

    “The addition of NaCl favored the production of butyric acid and inhibited the methanogenesis process while favoring the acidogenesis process that contributed for higher biohydrogen production [71].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [71] Sarkar, 2020, Salinity induced acidogenic fermentation of food waste regulates biohydrogen production and volatile fatty acids profile, Fuel source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Single cell protein is also termed microbial protein and is produced most commonly by submerged fermentation and solid-state fermentation.

    “It is also termed as microbial protein and is produced most commonly by submerged fermentation and solid-state fermentation [112].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [112] Kadim, 2015, Cultured meat from muscle stem cells: A review of challenges and prospects, J. Integr. Agric. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Short chain fatty acids/volatile fatty acids are essential industrial chemicals used for the production of acidulant, flavoring agents, polymers, preservatives and many other applications in food, pharmaceutical, and cosmetic industries.

    “Short chain fatty acids/volatile fatty acids are essential industrial chemicals used for the production of acidulant, flavoring agents, polymers, preservatives and many other applications in food industry, pharmaceutical industries, and cosmetic industries [85,86].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [85] Moscoviz, 2018, The environmental biorefinery: State-of-the-art on the production of hydrogen and value-added biomolecules in mixed-culture fermentation, Green Chem. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [86] Iglesias, 2020, Advances in catalytic routes for the production of carboxylic acids from biomass: A step forward for sustainable polymers, Chem. Soc. Rev. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Yunus et al. produced a single cell protein by growing Candida utilis and Rhizopus oligosporus on wheat bran.

    “Yunus et al., produced a single cell protein by growing Candida utilis and Rhizopus oligosporus on wheat bran [114].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [114] Yunus, 2015, Single-cell protein production through microbial conversion of lignocellulosic residue (wheat bran) for animal feed, J. Inst. Brew. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The production of biopolymers from food waste is an opportunity for minimizing environmental impacts and is a way of moving towards circular economy.

    “The production of biopolymers from food waste is an opportunity for minimizing the environmental impacts and is a way of moving towards circular economy.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Food waste are rich in carbohydrates and proteins and are potential sources of biopolymers.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The potentials of producing spectrum of products such as biofuels, platform chemicals, enzymes, proteins, biopolymers, biofertilizer and other bio-based compounds and materials from food waste can ensure sustainability of productions as well as resolve issues of environmental concern.

    “The potentials of producing spectrum of products such as biofuels, platform chemicals, enzymes, proteins, biopolymers, biofertilizer and other bio-based compounds and materials from food waste can ensures sustainability of productions as well as resolve the issues of environmental concern.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The demand for some specialty chemicals would be satisfied by just 5-10 biorefineries and a few biorefineries could satisfy the needs of the high-value pharmaceutical markets.

    “The demand for some specialty chemicals would be satisfied by just 5–10 biorefineries and a few biorefineries could satisfy the needs of the high-value pharmaceutical markets [144].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [144] Yang, 2020, Accumulation of high-value bioproducts in planta can improve the economics of advanced biofuels, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Essential oil and lemon pigment were extracted from lemon peel by microwave assisted extraction.

    “Essential oil and lemon pigment were extracted from lemon peel by microwave assisted extraction.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [137] Martínez-Abad, A., Ramos, M., Hamzaoui, M., Kohnen, S., Jiménez, A., and Garrigós, M.C. (2020). Optimisation of sequential microwave-assisted extraction of essential oil and pigment from lemon peels waste. Foods, 9. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The process generated 29.2 L/kg of biogas from anaerobic digestion of fruit and vegetable waste and biofertilizer of C:N ratio of 10:11.

    “The process generated 29.2 L/kg of biogas from the anaerobic digestion of fruit and vegetable waste and biofertilizer of C:N ratio of 10:11 [125].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [125] Chakravarty, I., and Mandavgane, S.A. (2020). Valorization of fruit and vegetable waste for biofertilizer and biogas. Food Process Eng., 1–8. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The payback time period should be carefully considered in the assessment, as the payback period for other biorefineries in real world implementation ranged between 3 and 15 years.

    “However, the payback time period should be carefully considered in this assessment (the payback period for other biorefineries in the real world implementation ranged between 3 and 15 years) [8].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [8] Caldeira, 2018, Techno-economic and profitability analysis of food waste biorefineries at European level, Bioresour. Technol. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Analysis of lemon essential oil by gas chromatography with flame ionization detector reveals about 65% limonene, 14% β-pinene and 10% γ-terpinene as main components, whereas ultra-high performance liquid chromatography shows lemon pigment contains about 4.7% eriocitrin, 7.3% diosmin, and 2.65% hesperidin.

    “The analysis of lemon essential oil by gas chromatography with flame ionization detector reveals that, about 65% limonene, 14% β-pinene and 10% γ-terpinene were the main components whereas ultra-high performance liquid chromatography shows that the lemon pigment contains about 4.7% eriocitrin, 7.3% diosmin, and 2.65% hesperidin [137].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [137] Martínez-Abad, A., Ramos, M., Hamzaoui, M., Kohnen, S., Jiménez, A., and Garrigós, M.C. (2020). Optimisation of sequential microwave-assisted extraction of essential oil and pigment from lemon peels waste. Foods, 9. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Spent coffee waste contains approximately 1-1.5% polyphenols and extraction by aqueous ethanol (20%) with microwave irradiation for 40 s at 80 W effectively extracted 399 mg GAE/g equivalent.

    “Spent coffee waste contains approximately 1–1.5% polyphenols and extraction by aqueous ethanol (20%) with microwave irradiation for 40 s at 80 W effectively extracted 399 mg GAE/g equivalent [133].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [133] Pavlovic, 2013, Dimitrijevic’-Brankovic Ethanol influenced fast microwave-assisted extraction for natural antioxidants obtaining from spent filter coffee, Sep. Purif. Technol. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    High purity phosphorous (81%) from waste was recovered by electrodialysis and 74% of nitrogen in the form of nitrate was recovered from waste by gas permeable membrane for production of biofertilization.

    “High purity phosphorous (81%) from waste were recovered by electrodialysis and 74% of nitrogen in the form of nitrate was recovered from waste by gas permeable membrane for production of biofertilization [124].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [124] Oliveira, 2021, A novel approach for nutrients recovery from municipal waste as biofertilizers by combining electrodialytic and gas permeable membrane technologies, Waste Manag. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The application of pulsed electric field with ethanol on potato peel contributed about 9% increment of antioxidant activity and 10% increment of phenolic yield.

    “The application of a pulsed electric field with ethanol on potato peel further contributed four about 9% increment of antioxidant activity and 10% increment of phenolic yield [135].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [135] Frontuto, 2019, Optimization of Pulsed Electric Fields-Assisted Extraction of Polyphenols from Potato Peels Using Response Surface Methodology, Food Bioprocess Technol. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    Waste biorefinery is an ideal concept for the valorization of food waste.

    “Waste biorefinery is an ideal concept for the valorization of food waste.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    The integration of food waste into the bioeconomy is an inevitable task for the present and future.

    “The integration of food waste into the bioeconomy is an inevitable task for the present and future.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    Subsidizing bio-products and carbon tax makes biorefinery more competitive and cost effective.

    “Moreover, subsidizing bio-products and carbon tax makes biorefinery more competitive and cost effective.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    If the price of lycopene and β-Carotene are assumed to be EUR 40000/kg and EUR 4000/kg, respectively, the biorefinery would be profitable having up to 56 plants installed across Europe.

    “A study carried out by Cristóbal et al. [8] on the techno-economic and profitability analysis of food waste biorefineries at the European level calculated that if the price of lycopene and β-Carotene are assumed to be EUR 40000/kg and EUR 4000/kg, respectively, the biorefinery would be profitable having up to 56 plants installed across Europe.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [8] Caldeira, 2018, Techno-economic and profitability analysis of food waste biorefineries at European level, Bioresour. Technol. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Food waste is considered as a potential feedstock for sustainable production of chemicals and materials, which is the core idea of circular bioeconomy.

    “In this context, food waste is considered as a potential feedstock for sustainable production of chemicals and materials, which is the core idea of circular bioeconomy.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    The variation in the type and composition of food waste is another challenge.

    “The variation in the type and composition of food waste is also another challenge.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The yield of pectinase enzyme was enhanced by reduced fatty acid biosynthesis and further increased by inhibition of pyruvate dehydrogenase and fatty acid biosynthesis by furfural and triclosan.

    “The yield of pectinase enzyme was enhanced by reduced fatty acid biosynthesis and further increased by inhibition of pyruvate dehydrogenase and fatty acid biosynthesis by furfural and triclosan [119].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [119] Guan, 2021, Fermentation time-dependent pectinase activity is associated with metabolomics variation in Bacillus licheniformis DY2, Process Biochem. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The application of supercritical CO2 extraction yields about 410.5 mg lycopene, 31.5 mg β-carotene from a kg of tomato peels and 27 mg lycopene, 5 mg β-carotene from a kg of tomato seeds.

    “The application of supercritical CO2 extraction yields about 410.5 mg lycopene, 31.5 mg β-carotene from a kg of tomato peels and 27 mg lycopene, 5 mg β-carotene from a kg of tomato seeds [136].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [136] Kehili, 2016, Biorefinery cascade processing for creating added value on tomato industrial by-products from Tunisia, Biotechnol. Biofuels source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    High pressure processing (400 MPa/10 min) of lemon peel resulted in higher polyphenol recovery, sinapic acid recovery of 47.33% in oven dried lemon flavedo and 59.59% in essential oil residues, and escultein recovery of 16.85% in oven dried lemon flavedo and 18.31% in essential oil residues.

    “In a different study, high pressure processing (400 MPa/10 min) of lemon peel resulted in higher polyphenol recovery, sinapic acid recovery of 47.33% in oven dried lemon flavedo and 59.59% in essential oil residues and escultein recovery of 16.85% in oven dried lemon flavedo and 18.31% in essential oil residues [138].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [138] Lu, S.Y., Chu, Y.L., Sridhar, K., and Tsai, P.J. (2021). Effect of ultrasound, high-pressure processing, and enzymatic hydrolysis on carbohydrate hydrolyzing enzymes and antioxidant activity of lemon (Citrus limon) flavedo. LWT, 138. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    The challenges posed by the growing amount of food waste dumped into the environment creates opportunities for production of biofuels, platform chemicals and other bio-based compounds and materials via the biorefinery approach.

    “The challenges posed by the growing amount of food waste dumped into the environment creates opportunities for the production of biofuels, platform chemicals and other bio-based compounds and materials via the biorefinery approach.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Phenolic compounds have well known applications in food, medical and pharmaceutical industries due to their antiviral, antibacterial, antioxidants, anti-carcinogenic and anti-inflammatory activities, and are widely extracted from food waste by conventional or non-conventional techniques.

    “Phenolic compounds have well known applications in food, medical and pharmaceutical industries due to their antiviral, antibacterial, antioxidants, anti-carcinogenic and anti-inflammatory activities which are widely extracted from food waste by conventional or non-conventional techniques [130,131].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [130] Oomah, 2015, Spent coffee grounds: A review on current research and future prospects, Trends Food Sci. Technol. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [131] Azmir, 2013, Techniques for extraction of bioactive compounds from plant materials: A review, J. Food Eng. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The micronutrients (Fe, Cu, Zn, Al, Co and Mn) of biofertilizer were significantly improved with higher nitrogen (1685 mgN/L) and phosphorous (235 mgP/L) content, with potassium content unchanged at 180 °C of thermal treatments.

    “The micronutrients (Fe, Cu, Zn, Al, Co and Mn) of the biofertilizer were significantly improved with higher nitrogen (1685 mgN/L) and phosphorous (235 mgP/L) content with potassium content unchanged at a 180 °C of thermal treatments [123].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [123] Gao, 2021, Thermal hydrolyzed food waste liquor as liquid organic fertilizer, Sci. Total Environ. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The payback period for PHA production from slaughtering waste is from 3.25 years to 4.5 years, which is in a reasonable period.

    “The payback period is from 3.25 years to 4.5 years, which is in a reasonable period [141].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [141] Shahzad, 2017, Techno-economic feasibility of waste biorefinery: Using slaughtering waste streams as starting material for biopolyester production, Waste Manag. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    The possibility of producing novel materials will lead to price competitiveness and cost-effectiveness of biorefineries.

    “However, the possibility of producing novel materials will lead to price competitiveness and cost-effectiveness of the biorefineries.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    Food waste valorizations are still in the infant stage.

    “Food waste valorizations are still in the infant stage.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    The efficiency of the product and the cost of production are the main issues needed to be resolved to realize the integration of food waste into the bioeconomy.

    “The efficiency of the product and the cost of production are the main issues needed to be resolved to realize the integration of food waste into the bioeconomy.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
81 of 81

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    It is impossible to completely avoid food waste.

    “It is impossible to completely avoid food waste, however it is possible to reduce the amount of wasted food.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Food waste is a potent greenhouse gas emitter, mainly methane, contributing to environmental pollution.

    “Other than the economic impact, food waste is a potent greenhouse gas emitter (mainly methane) contributing to environmental pollution.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Food waste is directly connected to water loss, air pollution, water pollution, biodiversity loss, soil degradation, and climate change.

    “More recently, food waste is directly connected to water loss, air pollution, water pollution, biodiversity loss, soil degradation, and climate change.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Approximately 40% of the total food produced in the world are wasted along the supply chains.

    “Approximately, 40% of the total food produced in the world are wasted along the supply chains.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    In developed nations, food waste is associated with consumer behaviors, while in developing nations it is associated with lack of technological capability.

    “In the developed nations, food waste is associate with consumer’s behaviors; while it is associated with the lack of technological incapability in developing nations.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    There are significant gaps of food waste data in developing countries, and many countries do not have national statistics for food waste.

    “There are significant gaps of food waste data in the developing countries, and even many countries do not have national statistics for food waste.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    In single stage anaerobic digestion, the formation of intermediate products accelerates inhibition of the subsequent processes.

    “However, the formation of intermediate products accelerates inhibition of the subsequent processes.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Lower conversion efficiency and lower product yield are obtained in single stage reactor configurations.

    “Hence, the lower conversion efficiency and lower product yield are obtained in such reactor configurations.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Reaction configurations of anaerobic digestion are highly influenced and controlled by process parameters and the desired final product.

    “The reaction configurations of anaerobic digestion are highly influenced and controlled by process parameters (pH, acidity, temperature, substrate composition, C/N ratio, reaction time and inoculum) and the desired final product.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Operating conditions highly influence the specific microbial communities and the final product in dark fermentation.

    “The operating conditions highly influence the specific microbial communities and the final product.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Immobilization of bacteria further enhanced the production of biohydrogen.

    “Immobilization of bacteria further enhanced the production of biohydrogen.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Promising results were observed from scaling up of biohydrogen production from organic spent matters in batch process.

    “Promising results were observed from scaling up of biohydrogen production from organic spent matters in batch process.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Food waste are rich in carbohydrates and proteins and are potential sources of biopolymers.

    “Food waste are rich in carbohydrates, and proteins and are potential sources of biopolymers.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Wastes from fish processing industries are rich in biopolymers such as chitin, collagen, chitosan, and gelatin which have prominent application in novel food packaging technologies.

    “Wastes from fish processing industries are rich in biopolymers such as chitin, collagen, chitosan, and gelatin which have prominent application in novel food packaging technologies.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Sugar rich food waste such as lignocellulosic biomass, whey, legume wastes, sugar wastes, whey, and oil are important resources for PHAs production via bacterial hydrolysis and fermentation.

    “Sugar rich food waste such as lignocellulosic biomass, whey, legume wastes, sugar wastes, whey, and oil are also important resources for PHAs production via bacterial hydrolysis and fermentation.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Unstable conditions created due to dynamics of environmental factors, pH, temperature, type and content of food waste make it difficult to maintain a stable degradation process.

    “However, the unstable conditions created due to dynamics of environmental factors, pH, temperature, type and content of food waste makes difficulty of maintaining stable degradation process.”
16 of 16

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

  • Food waste is a significant second-generation resource, although consistent data on per capita generation specific to biofuel potential (estimated at over 200 kg per capita per year for Europe) requires further consolidation.

    “Food waste itself is a significant 2-G resource, although consistent data on per capita generation specific to biofuel potential (estimated at over 200 kg per capita per year for Europe) requires further consolidation [120,121].”

    From Biofuels, E-Fuels, and Waste-Derived Fuels: Advances, Challenges, and Future Directions (2025) · cites this paper as [120]

    Section 1 (Introduction) describes food waste as a promising feedstock for biofuels, and Section 2 (Food Waste Generations) reports European food-waste generation of 158–298 kg/person/year and gaps in food-waste statistics. That range includes values below 200, and the paper does not identify it as generation specifically available for biofuel production or call for consolidation of biofuel-specific per-capita data. (LLM, conf=0.84)

    Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.

  • Reported 1.5-fold increase does not match the yields

    Minor

    Increasing from 46 to 73 mmol H2/L gives a ratio of about 1.59, which rounds to 1.6-fold at the reported precision, not 1.5-fold.

    Reported 1.5 · recomputed 1.586957

  • Biddy et al. are assigned the wrong reference number

    Minor

    The text cites Biddy et al. as reference 141, but the reference list identifies Biddy et al. as reference 143.

  • Reported 2.5-fold hydrogen increase does not match the yields

    Minor

    The increase from 1.77 to 5.4 moles of H2 per mole of hexose is about 3.05-fold, not 2.5-fold.

    Reported 2.5 · recomputed 3.050847

3 of 3

The citation lists haven’t been fetched yet

References 140 · Cited by 191

Research works printed but not linked: 1

  1. Venkat, 2012, ClimateChangeImpactofUSFoodWaste.pdf, Int. J. Food Syst. Dyn., 2, 431

Authors
Tsegaye, B., Jaiswal, S., & Jaiswal, A. K.
Affiliations
  • Wolkite University (ET)
  • Technological University Dublin (IE)
Corresponding author
Jaiswal, Amit K.
ORCID
Venue
Foods
Publisher
MDPI AG
Published
2021-05-24
Volume
10
Issue
6
Pages
1174
ISSN
2304-8158 (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.3390/foods10061174
PMC
PMC8225055
OpenAlex
W3164860982
Cited by
191
References
140
Citations by year
2026: 42 · 2025: 42 · 2024: 44 · 2023: 36 · 2022: 24 · 2021: 3
FWCI
2.26
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
  • Foods (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
  • DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
Topics
  • Physical Sciences › Engineering › Biomedical Engineering › Biofuel production and bioconversion
  • Physical Sciences › Engineering › Biomedical Engineering › Catalysis for Biomass Conversion
  • Life Sciences › Agricultural and Biological Sciences › General Agricultural and Biological Sciences › Bioeconomy and Sustainability Development
Keywords
circular bioeconomy, circular economy, biofuels, platform chemicals, bio-based materials, waste valorization, value-added products, Sustainable Development Goals, resource efficiency

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-10-10.

Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-10-10.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›

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