Perfluoroalkyl substances in the Maltese environment – (I) surface water and rain water
Open accessAbstract
The presence of perfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) in rain water on the Maltese Islands is reported here for the first time and an extensive survey of these substances in surface water also reported. The Maltese archipelago lies at the centre of the Mediterranean Sea and consists of three main inhabited islands: Malta, Gozo and Comino. Surface water was collected from 41 valleys during the months of February and March 2015 at the peak of the wet season. Rain water was collected during the months of December 2014, February, August, September and October 2015. PFASs were extracted from the water samples using solid phase extraction and the extracts were then analysed using ultra performance liquid chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry in tandem (UPLC-MS/MS). All surface and rain water samples were contaminated with at least one PFAS. PFOS (<LOD - 8.6ng/L) and PFOA (ND - 16ng/L) were the two major PFASs being detected in 100% and 95% of the surface waters respectively. The ΣPFAS concentrations in rain water ranged between 0.38ng/L (1st October 2015) and 6ng/L (21st February 2015). The Maltese archipelago is surrounded by sea and disconnected from any other mainland; therefore the results confirm that remote environments can become contaminated by PFASs from rain events depending on wind prevailing trajectories.
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PFAS have been detected in treated drinking water, groundwater, oceans, lakes, rivers and other surface water bodies, rainwater, snow, municipal sewage, biosolids, landfill leachate, and biota in surface water bodies.
“PFAS have been detected in treated drinking water, groundwater, oceans, lakes, rivers and other surface water bodies, rainwater, snow, municipal sewage, biosolids, landfill leachate, and many other environmental media such as biota in the surface water bodies (Hamid et al., 2018; Pan et al., 2014; Sammut et al., 2017; Yang et al., 2011).”
From Per and poly-fluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) as a contaminant of emerging concern in surface water: A transboundary review of their occurrences and toxicity effects (2021) · cites this paper as Sammut et al., 2017
The Introduction (page not provided) reports PFAS detections in surface waters, oceans, fish, rainwater, drinking water, and sludge; the Results also document detections in Maltese surface water and rainwater and report detections in European rivers. The copy does not establish detections in every listed medium: it discusses groundwater as a possible route of contamination, does not specify treated drinking water, and does not report detections in snow, municipal sewage, or landfill leachate. (LLM, conf=0.87)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe comparative overview of maximum concentrations of targeted PFAS in European surface waters reveals pronounced spatial differences among freshwater systems across Europe.
“The comparative overview of maximum concentrations of targeted PFAS in European surface waters (Table S7) reveals pronounced spatial differences among freshwater systems across Europe”
From Integrated Targeted and Suspect Screening Workflow for Identifying PFAS of Concern in Urban-Impacted Serbian Rivers (2026) · cites this paper as [37]
Maximum ΣPFASN values range from 35.02 ng/L in Malta (N = 7) and 42 ng/L in Finland (N = 23) to 725 ng/L in France (N = 22) and 2878 ng/L in Spain (N = 21).
“Maximum ΣPFASN values range from 35.02 ng/L in Malta (N = 7) [37] and 42 ng/L in Finland (N = 23) [36] to substantially higher maxima in France (ΣPFASN = 725 ng/L; N = 22) [33] and Spain (ΣPFASN = 2878 ng/L; N = 21) [32].”
From Integrated Targeted and Suspect Screening Workflow for Identifying PFAS of Concern in Urban-Impacted Serbian Rivers (2026) · cites this paper as [37]
PFOA was detected in 95% of the surface water samples from the Maltese Islands.
“Furthermore, PFOA was detected in 95% of the surface water samples.”
From Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances in water and wastewater: A critical review of their global occurrence and distribution (2022) · cites this paper as Sammut et al., 2017
Detection of PFAS in the remote Maltese Islands is attributed to precipitation, with detected PFAS concentrations in precipitation ranging from 0.38-6 ng/L.
“Interestingly, the authors noted that detection of PFAS in this remote island is attributed to precipitation, and the detected PFAS concentrations measured in precipitation ranged from 0.38–6 ng L−1.”
From Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances in water and wastewater: A critical review of their global occurrence and distribution (2022) · cites this paper as Sammut et al., 2017
Findings from the Maltese Islands suggest that long-range atmospheric transport of PFAS can threaten remote aquatic environments through precipitation.
“These findings suggest that long-range atmospheric transport of PFAS can threaten remote aquatic environments through precipitation (Sammut et al., 2017).”
From Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances in water and wastewater: A critical review of their global occurrence and distribution (2022) · cites this paper as Sammut et al., 2017
In the Maltese Islands, PFOA and PFOS were present in surface water samples at concentrations ranging from ND-16 ng/L and <LOD-8.6 ng/L, respectively.
“For example, a recent study in the Maltese Islands, Central Mediterranean, found that PFOA and PFOS were present in surface water samples with concentrations ranging from ND – 16 ng L−1, and <LOD to 8.6 ng L−1, respectively.”
From Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances in water and wastewater: A critical review of their global occurrence and distribution (2022) · cites this paper as Sammut et al., 2017
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“Maximum Σ PFAS N values range from 35.02 ng/L in Malta ( N = 7) [37] and 42 ng/L in Finland ( N = 23) [36] to substantially higher maxima in France ( Σ PFAS N = 725 ng/L; N = 22) [33] and Spain ( Σ PFAS N = 2878 ng/L; N = 21) [32].”
Influential
- Authors
- Sammut, G., Sinagra, E., Helmus, R., & de Voogt, P.
- Affiliations
- University of Malta (MT)
- University of Amsterdam (NL)
- Corresponding author
- Sinagra, E.
- Venue
- Science of The Total Environment
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2017-07
- Volume
- 589
- Pages
- 182-190
- ISSN
- 0048-9697 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2594801172
- Cited by
- 63
- References
- 11
- Citations by year
- 2026: 8 · 2025: 9 · 2024: 8 · 2023: 7 · 2022: 9 · 2021: 9 · 2020: 2 · 2019: 6 · 2018: 2 · 2017: 3
- FWCI
- 2.09
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- The Science of The Total Environment (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- UvA-DARE (University of Amsterdam) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- Data Archiving and Networked Services (DANS) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- Funders
- Malta Government Scholarship Scheme (DES/192/2014/66)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Environmental Chemistry › Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances research
- Life Sciences › Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutics › Pharmaceutical Science › Fluorine in Organic Chemistry
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Health, Toxicology and Mutagenesis › Toxic Organic Pollutants Impact
- Keywords
- perfluorinated compounds, PFAS contamination, surface water, rainwater, perfluorooctanoic acid, PFOS, atmospheric transport, wind trajectories, Maltese Islands, Mediterranean
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