Perfluoroalkyl Acids in Great Lakes Precipitation and Surface Water (2006–2018) Indicate Response to Phase-outs, Regulatory Action, and Variability in Fate and Transport Processes
Abstract
The concentrations of perfluoroalkyl acids (PFAAs) were determined in precipitation from three locations across the Great Lakes between 2006 and 2018 and compared to those in surface water. Perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS) and perfluorooctanoate (PFOA) concentrations generally decreased in precipitation, likely in response to phase-outs/regulatory actions. In comparison, concentrations of shorter-chained PFAA, which are not regulated in Canada did not decrease and those of perfluorohexanoate and perfluorobutanoate (PFBA) recently increased, which could be due to their use as replacements, as the longer-chained PFAAs are being phased-out by industry. PFOS and PFOA concentrations were greater in Lake Ontario precipitation than in precipitation from more remote locations. In comparison, PFBA concentrations were comparable across locations, suggesting greater atmospheric transport either through its more volatile precursors and/or directly in association with particles/aerosols. In Lake Ontario, the comparison of PFAAs in precipitation to those in surface water provides evidence of sources (e.g., street dust and wastewater effluent) in addition to wet deposition to surface water, whereas wet deposition appears to be dominant in Lakes Huron and Superior. Our results suggest that source control of shorter-chained PFAAs may be slow to be reflected in environmental concentrations due to emissions far from the location of detection and continued volatilization from existing in-use products and waste streams.
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Wet deposition is a major pathway for PFASs to enter the soil, observed globally including in North America and Asia.
“This process has been observed globally, including in North America and Asia, making wet deposition a major pathway for PFASs to enter the soil [149,150].”
From Industrial Applications, Environmental Fate, Human Exposure, and Health Effects of PFAS (2025) · cites this paper as [150]
Apart from well-known industrial uses such as fire-fighting foams and metal-plating mist suppressants, PFAS sources particularly relevant to outdoor urban environments include construction materials such as paints and coatings, roofing materials, outdoor textiles, solar panels, and synthetic turf; paper-based litter; and automotive parts and fluids.
“Apart from well-known industrial uses such as re-ghting foams and metal-plating mist suppressants, PFAS sources particularly relevant to outdoor urban environments include construction materials such as paints and coatings, roong materials, outdoor textiles, solar panels, and synthetic turf; paper-based litter; and automotive parts and uids.[94][95][96]”
From Storms mobilize organophosphate esters, bisphenols, PFASs, and vehicle-derived contaminants to San Francisco Bay watersheds (2024) · cites this paper as [96]
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- Authors
- Gewurtz, S. B., Bradley, L. E., Backus, S., Dove, A., McGoldrick, D., Hung, H., & Dryfhout-Clark, H.
- Affiliations
- Environment and Climate Change Canada (CA)
- Corresponding author
- Bradley, Lisa E.
- Venue
- Environmental Science & Technology
- Publisher
- American Chemical Society (ACS)
- Published
- 2019-06-24
- Volume
- 53
- Issue
- 15
- Pages
- 8543-8552
- ISSN
- 0013-936X (ISSN-L)
- 1520-5851
- OpenAlex
- W2953755667
- Cited by
- 92
- References
- 54
- Citations by year
- 2026: 16 · 2025: 15 · 2024: 15 · 2023: 10 · 2022: 11 · 2021: 15 · 2020: 8 · 2019: 2
- FWCI
- 3.91
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Licence
- Locations
- Environmental Science & Technology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Environmental Chemistry › Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances research
- Life Sciences › Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutics › Pharmaceutical Science › Fluorine in Organic Chemistry
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Health, Toxicology and Mutagenesis › Toxic Organic Pollutants Impact
- Keywords
- perfluoroalkyl acids, PFOS, perfluorooctanoic acid, perfluorobutanoic acid, Great Lakes, precipitation, surface water, wet deposition, atmospheric transport, regulatory action, source control, Lake Ontario, Lake Huron, Lake Superior, road dust, wastewater effluent, volatilization, aerosols
- MeSH terms
- Environmental Monitoring, Fluorocarbons, Ontario, Water, Water Pollutants, Chemical, Alkanesulfonic Acids, Lakes
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