Impact of Treatment Processes on the Removal of Perfluoroalkyl Acids from the Drinking Water Production Chain
Abstract
The behavior of polyfluoralkyl acids (PFAAs) from intake (raw source water) to finished drinking water was assessed by taking samples from influent and effluent of the several treatment steps used in a drinking water production chain. These consisted of intake, coagulation, rapid sand filtration, dune passage, aeration, rapid sand filtration, ozonation, pellet softening, granular activated carbon (GAC) filtration, slow sand filtration, and finished drinking water. In the intake water taken from the Lek canal (a tributary of the river Rhine), the most abundant PFAA were PFBA (perfluorobutanoic acid), PFBS (perfluorobutane sulfonate), PFOS (perfluorooctane sulfonate), and PFOA (perfluorooctanoic acid). During treatment, longer chain PFAA such as PFNA (perfluorononanoic acid) and PFOS were readily removed by the GAC treatment step and their GAC effluent concentrations were reduced to levels below the limits of quantitation (LOQ) (0.23 and 0.24 ng/L for PFOS and PFNA, respectively). However, more hydrophilic shorter chain PFAA (especially PFBA and PFBS) were not removed by GAC and their concentrations remained constant through treatment. A decreasing removal capacity of the GAC was observed with increasing carbon loading and with decreasing carbon chain length of the PFAAs. This study shows that none of the treatment steps, including softening processes, are effective for PFAA removal, except for GAC filtration. GAC can effectively remove certain PFAA from the drinking water cycle.The enrichment of branched PFOS and PFOA isomers relative to non branched isomers during GAC filtration was observed during treatment. The finished water contained 26 and 19 ng/L of PFBA and PFBS. Other PFAAs were present in concentrations below 4.2 ng/L The concentrations of PFAA observed in finished waters are no reason for concern for human health as margins to existing guidelines are sufficiently large.
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Competitive adsorption between DOM and PFAS was also found, leading to inhibition of adsorption capacity of activated carbon for PFAS in water treatment.
“However, competitive adsorption was also found (Xiao et al., 2017), leading to inhibition of the adsorption capacity of activated carbon for PFAS in water treatment”
From Molecular characteristics of emerging perfluoroalkyl and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) and dissolved organic matter (DOM) in surface waters around fluorine-related industries in a Chinese Megacity (2025) · cites this paper as Eschauzier et al., 2012
Drinking water treatment plants do not completely remove legacy PFCAs and PFSAs during drinking water production.
“Studies have shown that drinking water treatment plants (DWTP) fail to completely remove legacy PFASs (PFCAs and PFSAs) during the process to produce drinking water.15,16”
From Presence of Emerging Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFASs) in River and Drinking Water near a Fluorochemical Production Plant in the Netherlands (2017) · cites this paper as [16]
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- Authors
- Eschauzier, C., Beerendonk, E., Scholte-Veenendaal, P., & De Voogt, P.
- Affiliations
- KWR Water Research Institute (NL)
- Waternet, Korte Ouderkerkerdijk 7, 1096 AC Amsterdam, Netherlands
- KWR Watercycle Research Institute, P.O.Box 1072, 3430 BB Nieuwegein, Netherlands
- Venue
- Environmental Science & Technology
- Publisher
- American Chemical Society (ACS)
- Published
- 2012-01-13
- Volume
- 46
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 1708-1715
- ISSN
- 0013-936X (ISSN-L)
- 1520-5851
- OpenAlex
- W2130430185
- Cited by
- 318
- References
- 33
- Citations by year
- 2026: 20 · 2025: 22 · 2024: 31 · 2023: 26 · 2022: 38 · 2021: 24 · 2020: 22 · 2019: 29 · 2018: 21 · 2017: 20 · 2016: 15 · 2015: 19 · 2014: 12 · 2013: 12 · 2012: 6
- FWCI
- 7.61
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Environmental Science & Technology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- UvA-DARE (University of Amsterdam) (publishedVersion)
- Data Archiving and Networked Services (DANS) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- European Commission
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Environmental Chemistry › Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances research
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Health, Toxicology and Mutagenesis › Water Treatment and Disinfection
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Water Science and Technology › Fluoride Effects and Removal
- Keywords
- perfluoroalkyl acids, drinking water treatment, granular activated carbon, PFOS, perfluorooctanoic acid, perfluorobutanoic acid, PFBS, PFNA, coagulation, ozonation, softening, rapid sand filtration, slow sand filtration, PFAS removal
- MeSH terms
- Analysis of Variance, Charcoal, Filtration, Fluorocarbons, Netherlands, Silicon Dioxide, Time Factors, Water Pollutants, Chemical, Water Purification, Drinking Water
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