Adipocyte Accumulation in the Bone Marrow during Obesity and Aging Impairs Stem Cell-Based Hematopoietic and Bone Regeneration
Open accessAbstract
Aging and obesity induce ectopic adipocyte accumulation in bone marrow cavities. This process is thought to impair osteogenic and hematopoietic regeneration. Here we specify the cellular identities of the adipogenic and osteogenic lineages of the bone. While aging impairs the osteogenic lineage, high-fat diet feeding activates expansion of the adipogenic lineage, an effect that is significantly enhanced in aged animals. We further describe a mesenchymal sub-population with stem cell-like characteristics that gives rise to both lineages and, at the same time, acts as a principal component of the hematopoietic niche by promoting competitive repopulation following lethal irradiation. Conversely, bone-resident cells committed to the adipocytic lineage inhibit hematopoiesis and bone healing, potentially by producing excessive amounts of Dipeptidyl peptidase-4, a protease that is a target of diabetes therapies. These studies delineate the molecular identity of the bone-resident adipocytic lineage, and they establish its involvement in age-dependent dysfunction of bone and hematopoietic regeneration.
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
Cell composition of the bone marrow shifts with ageing, with the proportion of adipocytes markedly increasing, creating an inflammatory environment through secretion of soluble factors.
“Cell composition of the bone marrow shifts with ageing, with the proportion of adipocytes markedly increasing, creating an inflammatory environment through secretion of soluble factors129.”
From Ageing and rejuvenation of tissue stem cells and their niches (2023) · cites this paper as [129]
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
The self-check needs the paper’s full text.
Cites
Mesenchymal and haematopoietic stem cells form a unique bone marrow niche
Méndez‐Ferrer, S., Michurina, T. V., Ferraro, F., Mazloom, A. R., MacArthur, B. D., Lira, S. A., Scadden, D. T., Ma’ayan, A., Enikolopov, G., & Frenette, P. S. (2010) · Nature · doi:10.1038/nature09262 · Cited by 3,381 · see citing works
The bone marrow niche for haematopoietic stem cells
Morrison, S. J., & Scadden, D. T. (2014) · Nature · doi:10.1038/nature12984 · Cited by 2,451 · see citing works
Coupling of angiogenesis and osteogenesis by a specific vessel subtype in bone
Kusumbe, A. P., Ramasamy, S. K., & Adams, R. H. (2014) · Nature · doi:10.1038/nature13145 · Cited by 2,155 · see citing works
Endothelial and perivascular cells maintain haematopoietic stem cells
Ding, L., Saunders, T. L., Enikolopov, G., & Morrison, S. J. (2012) · Nature · doi:10.1038/nature10783 · Cited by 1,934 · see citing works
Fracture healing: mechanisms and interventions
Einhorn, T. A., & Gerstenfeld, L. C. (2014) · Nature Reviews Rheumatology · doi:10.1038/nrrheum.2014.164 · Cited by 1,832 · see citing works
Zhou, B. O., Yue, R., Murphy, M. M., Peyer, J. G., & Morrison, S. J. (2014) · Cell Stem Cell · doi:10.1016/j.stem.2014.06.008 · Cited by 1,381 · see citing works
CXCL12 in early mesenchymal progenitors is required for haematopoietic stem-cell maintenance
Greenbaum, A. M., Hsu, Y.-M. S., Day, R. B., Schuettpelz, L. G., Christopher, M. J., Borgerding, J. N., Nagasawa, T., & Link, D. C. (2013) · Nature · doi:10.1038/nature11926 · Cited by 1,372 · see citing works
Bone-marrow adipocytes as negative regulators of the haematopoietic microenvironment
Naveiras, O., Nardi, V., Wenzel, P. L., Hauschka, P. V., Fahey, F., & Daley, G. Q. (2009) · Nature · doi:10.1038/nature08099 · Cited by 1,129 · cited 3× · see citing works
“Nevertheless, marrow adipogenesis is associated with impaired hematopoiesis (Naveiras et al., 2009).”
BackgroundWhite Fat Progenitor Cells Reside in the Adipose Vasculature
Tang, W., Zeve, D., Suh, J. M., Bosnakovski, D., Kyba, M., Hammer, R. E., Tallquist, M. D., & Graff, J. M. (2008) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.1156232 · Cited by 1,113 · see citing works
Identification of White Adipocyte Progenitor Cells In Vivo
Rodeheffer, M. S., Birsoy, K., & Friedman, J. M. (2008) · Cell · doi:10.1016/j.cell.2008.09.036 · Cited by 945 · see citing works
Morikawa, S., Mabuchi, Y., Kubota, Y., Nagai, Y., Niibe, K., Hiratsu, E., Suzuki, S., Miyauchi-Hara, C., Nagoshi, N., Sunabori, T., et al. (2009) · The Journal of Experimental Medicine · doi:10.1084/jem.20091046 · Cited by 833 · see citing works
Hematopoietic stem cell niche maintenance during homeostasis and regeneration
Mendelson, A., & Frenette, P. S. (2014) · Nature Medicine · doi:10.1038/nm.3647 · Cited by 783 · see citing works
Identification and Specification of the Mouse Skeletal Stem Cell
Chan, C. K. F., Seo, E. Y., Chen, J. Y., Lo, D. D., McArdle, A., Sinha, R., Tevlin, R., Seita, J., Vincent-Tompkins, J., Wearda, T. L., et al. (2015) · Cell · doi:10.1016/j.cell.2014.12.002 · Cited by 763 · see citing works
Distinct bone marrow blood vessels differentially regulate haematopoiesis
Itkin, T., Gur‐Cohen, S., Spencer, J. A., Schajnovitz, A., Ramasamy, S. K., Kusumbe, A. P., Ledergor, G., Jung, Y., Milo, I., Poulos, M. G., et al. (2016) · Nature · doi:10.1038/nature17624 · Cited by 709 · see citing works
Gremlin 1 Identifies a Skeletal Stem Cell with Bone, Cartilage, and Reticular Stromal Potential
Worthley, D. L., Churchill, M., Compton, J. T., Tailor, Y. H., Rao, M., Si, Y., Levin, D. E., Schwartz, M. G., Uygur, A., Hayakawa, Y., et al. (2015) · Cell · doi:10.1016/j.cell.2014.11.042 · Cited by 635 · see citing works
Dipeptidyl Peptidase 4 Is a Novel Adipokine Potentially Linking Obesity to the Metabolic Syndrome
Lamers, D., Famulla, S., Wronkowitz, N., Hartwig, S., Lehr, S., Ouwens, D. M., Eckardt, K., Kaufman, J., Rydén, M., Müller, S., et al. (2011) · Diabetes · doi:10.2337/db10-1707 · Cited by 583 · see citing works
Characterization of the adipocyte cellular lineage in vivo
Berry, R., & Rodeheffer, M. S. (2013) · Nature Cell Biology · doi:10.1038/ncb2696 · Cited by 542 · see citing works
Enhanced insulin secretion and improved glucose tolerance in mice lacking CD26
Marguet, D., Baggio, L. L., Kobayashi, T., Bernard, A., Pierres, M., Nielsen, P. F., Ribel, U., Watanabe, T., Drucker, D. J., & Wagtmann, N. R. (2000) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.120069197 · Cited by 538 · see citing works
Neuroepithelial Cells Supply an Initial Transient Wave of MSC Differentiation
Takashima, Y., Era, T., Nakao, K., Kondo, S., Kasuga, M., Smith, A. G., & Nishikawa, S.-I. (2007) · Cell · doi:10.1016/j.cell.2007.04.028 · Cited by 523 · see citing works
Cawthorn, W., Scheller, E., Learman, B. S., Parlee, S., Simon, B., Mori, H., Ning, X.-M., Bree, A. J., Schell, B. A., Broome, D. T., et al. (2014) · Cell Metabolism · doi:10.1016/j.cmet.2014.06.003 · Cited by 506 · see citing works
Yue, R., Zhou, B. O., Shimada, I. S., Zhao, Z., & Morrison, S. J. (2016) · Cell stem cell · doi:10.1016/j.stem.2016.02.015 · Cited by 485 · see citing works
Identification of inducible brown adipocyte progenitors residing in skeletal muscle and white fat
Schulz, T. J., Huang, T. L., Tran, T. T., Zhang, H., Townsend, K. L., Shadrach, J. L., Cerletti, M., McDougall, L. E., Giorgadze, N., Tchkonia, T., et al. (2010) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.1010929108 · Cited by 459 · see citing works
Self-citationMizoguchi, T., Pinho, S., Ahmed, J. U., Kunisaki, Y., Hanoun, M., Mendelson, A., Ono, N., Kronenberg, H. M., & Frenette, P. S. (2014) · Developmental Cell · doi:10.1016/j.devcel.2014.03.013 · Cited by 441 · see citing works
Blood vessel formation and function in bone
Sivaraj, K. K., & Adams, R. H. (2016) · Development · doi:10.1242/dev.136861 · Cited by 439 · see citing works
Scheller, E. L., Doucette, C. R., Learman, B. S., Cawthorn, W. P., Khandaker, S., Schell, B., Wu, B., Ding, S.-Y., Bredella, M. A., Fazeli, P. K., et al. (2015) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/ncomms8808 · Cited by 433 · cited 3× · see citing works
“Follow-up studies will have to determine whether these effects are also true for distinct processes, such as bone remodeling as opposed to bone healing, and subtypes of healthy and pathological MAT (Cawthorn et al., 2014; Scheller et al., 2015) and whether sex-specific differences occur as only male mice were analyzed…”
BackgroundGupta, R. K., Mepani, R. J., Kleiner, S., Lo, J. C., Khandekar, M. J., Cohen, P., Frontini, A., Bhowmick, D. C., Ye, L., Cinti, S., et al. (2012) · Cell Metabolism · doi:10.1016/j.cmet.2012.01.010 · Cited by 426 · see citing works
Marrow Fat and Bone—New Perspectives
Fazeli, P. K., Horowitz, M. C., MacDougald, O. A., Scheller, E. L., Rodeheffer, M. S., Rosen, C. J., & Klibanski, A. (2013) · The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism · doi:10.1210/jc.2012-3634 · Cited by 417 · see citing works
Nagoshi, N., Shibata, S., Kubota, Y., Nakamura, M., Nagai, Y., Satoh, E., Morikawa, S., Okada, Y., Mabuchi, Y., Katoh, H., et al. (2008) · Cell stem cell · doi:10.1016/j.stem.2008.03.005 · Cited by 367 · see citing works
NUTTALL, M. E. (2004) · Current Opinion in Pharmacology · doi:10.1016/j.coph.2004.03.002 · Cited by 366 · see citing works
Isern, J., García‐García, A., MARTIN, A., Arranz, L., Martín-Pérez, D., Torroja, C., Sánchez‐Cabo, F., & Méndez‐Ferrer, S. (2014) · eLife · doi:10.7554/elife.03696 · Cited by 311 · see citing works
Franke, W. W., Hergt, M., & Gründ, C. (1987) · Cell · doi:10.1016/0092-8674(87)90763-x · Cited by 273 · see citing works
Development of mesenchymal stem cells partially originate from the neural crest
Morikawa, S., Mabuchi, Y., Niibe, K., et al. (2009) · Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications · doi:10.1016/j.bbrc.2009.01.031 · Cited by 270 · see citing works
Krings, A., Rahman, S., Huang, S., Lu, Y., Czernik, P. J., & Lecka‐Czernik, B. (2011) · Bone · doi:10.1016/j.bone.2011.06.016 · Cited by 258 · see citing works
The bone–fat interface: basic and clinical implications of marrow adiposity
Devlin, M. J., & Rosen, C. J. (2014) · The Lancet Diabetes & Endocrinology · doi:10.1016/s2213-8587(14)70007-5 · Cited by 256 · see citing works
What's the matter with MAT? Marrow adipose tissue, metabolism, and skeletal health
Scheller, E. L., & Rosen, C. J. (2014) · Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1111/nyas.12327 · Cited by 230 · see citing works
Broxmeyer, H. E., Hoggatt, J., O’Leary, H. A., Mantel, C., Chitteti, B. R., Cooper, S. H., Messina‐Graham, S., Hangoc, G., Farag, S. S., Rohrabaugh, S., et al. (2012) · Nature Medicine · doi:10.1038/nm.2991 · Cited by 223 · see citing works
Ebf2 is a selective marker of brown and beige adipogenic precursor cells
Wang, W., Kissig, M., Rajakumari, S., Huang, L., Lim, H., Won, K., & Seale, P. (2014) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.1412685111 · Cited by 222 · see citing works
Goto, T., Lee, J., Teraminami, A., Kim, Y., Hirai, S., Uemura, T., Inoue, H., Takahashi, N., & Kawada, T. (2011) · Journal of Lipid Research · doi:10.1194/jlr.m011320 · Cited by 219 · see citing works
Luo, Y., Chen, G., Hannemann, N., Ipseiz, N., Krönke, G., Bäuerle, T., Munos, L., Wirtz, S. J., Schett, G. A., & Bözec, A. (2015) · Cell Metabolism · doi:10.1016/j.cmet.2015.08.020 · Cited by 198 · see citing works
Dipeptidyl Peptidase-4 Inhibitors and Bone Fractures
Monami, M., Dicembrini, I., Antenore, A., & Mannucci, E. (2011) · Diabetes Care · doi:10.2337/dc11-1099 · Cited by 178 · see citing works
Doucette, C. R., Horowitz, M., Berry, R., MacDougald, O., Anunciado-Koza, R., Koza, R. A., & Rosen, C. J. (2015) · Journal of Cellular Physiology · doi:10.1002/jcp.24954 · Cited by 163 · see citing works
Marrow Fat and Bone: Review of Clinical Findings
Schwartz, A. V. (2015) · Frontiers in Endocrinology · doi:10.3389/fendo.2015.00040 · Cited by 158 · see citing works
Leptin Resistance During Aging Is Independent of Fat Mass
Gabriely, I., Xiao, H., Yang, X. M., Rossetti, L., & Barzilai, N. (2002) · Diabetes · doi:10.2337/diabetes.51.4.1016 · Cited by 153 · see citing works
Lewandowski, D., Barroca, V., Ducongè, F., Bayer, J. A., Nhieu, J. T. V., Pestourie, C., Fouchet, P., Tavitian, B., & Roméo, P. (2009) · Blood · doi:10.1182/blood-2009-05-222711 · Cited by 128 · see citing works
Characterization of Cre Recombinase Activity for In Vivo Targeting of Adipocyte Precursor Cells
Krueger, K. C., Costa, M. J. D. C., Du, H., & Feldman, B. J. (2014) · Stem Cell Reports · doi:10.1016/j.stemcr.2014.10.009 · Cited by 110 · see citing works
Bone damage in type 2 diabetes mellitus.
Carnevale, V., Romagnoli, E., D'Erasmo, L., & d'Erasmo, E. (2014) · NMCD. Nutrition Metabolism and Cardiovascular Diseases · doi:10.1016/j.numecd.2014.06.013 · Cited by 69 · see citing works
Berry, R., Rodeheffer, M. S., Rosen, C. J., & Horowitz, M. C. (2015) · Current Molecular Biology Reports · doi:10.1007/s40610-015-0018-y · Cited by 55 · see citing works
Le, Y., Fraineau, S., Chandran, P., Sabloff, M., Brand, M., Lavoie, J. R., Gagné, R., Rosu‐Myles, M., Yauk, C. L., Richardson, R. B., et al. (2015) · Stem Cell Reviews and Reports · doi:10.1007/s12015-015-9639-z · Cited by 49 · see citing works
Fridenshteĭn, A. I., Kv, P., Kuralesova, A. I., & Frolova, G. I. (1968) · PubMed · Cited by 46 · see citing works
Dipeptidyl-peptidase 4 Inhibition: Linking Metabolic Control to Cardiovascular Protection
Avogaro, A., de Kreutzenberg, S. V., & Fadini, G. P. (2014) · Current Pharmaceutical Design · doi:10.2174/13816128113199990474 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
Steenhuis, P., Pettway, G. J., & Ignelzi, M. A. (2008) · Calcified Tissue International · doi:10.1007/s00223-007-9083-4 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Kim, S., & Cho, E.-H. (2016) · Endocrinology and Metabolism · doi:10.3803/enm.2016.31.1.93 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Flagged first, then by citations
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Adipogenesis and metabolic health
Ghaben, A. L., & Scherer, P. E. (2019) · Nature Reviews Molecular Cell Biology · doi:10.1038/s41580-018-0093-z · Cited by 1,395 · see citing works
Identification of a mesenchymal progenitor cell hierarchy in adipose tissue
Merrick, D., Sakers, A., Irgebay, Z., Okada, C., Calvert, C., Morley, M. P., Percec, I., & Seale, P. (2019) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.aav2501 · Cited by 664 · see citing works
Obesity-Induced Cellular Senescence Drives Anxiety and Impairs Neurogenesis
Ogrodnik, M., Zhu, Y., Langhi, L. G. P., Tchkonia, T., Krüger, P., Fielder, E., Victorelli, S., Ruswhandi, R. A., Giorgadze, N., Pirtskhalava, T., et al. (2019) · Cell Metabolism · doi:10.1016/j.cmet.2018.12.008 · Cited by 536 · see citing works
Bajaj, V., Gadi, N., Spihlman, A. P., Wu, S. C., Choi, C. H., & Moulton, V. R. (2021) · Frontiers in Physiology · doi:10.3389/fphys.2020.571416 · Cited by 476 · see citing works
Ageing and rejuvenation of tissue stem cells and their niches
Brunet, A., Goodell, M. A., & Rando, T. A. (2023) · Nature Reviews Molecular Cell Biology · doi:10.1038/s41580-022-00510-w · Cited by 407 · see citing works
TGF-β Signaling in Cellular Senescence and Aging-Related Pathology
Tominaga, K., & Suzuki, H. I. (2019) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms20205002 · Cited by 393 · see citing works
Aged skeletal stem cells generate an inflammatory degenerative niche
Ambrosi, T. H., Marecic, O., McArdle, A., Sinha, R., Gulati, G. S., Tong, X., Wang, Y., Steininger, H. M., Hoover, M. Y., Koepke, L. S., et al. (2021) · Nature · doi:10.1038/s41586-021-03795-7 · Cited by 392 · see citing works
Self-citationWeivoda, M. M., Chew, C. K., Monroe, D. G., Farr, J. N., Atkinson, E. J., Geske, J. R., Eckhardt, B., Thicke, B., Ruan, M., Tweed, A. J., et al. (2020) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/s41467-019-14003-6 · Cited by 230 · see citing works
Multipotent stromal cells: One name, multiple identities
Soliman, H., Theret, M., Scott, W., Hill, L., Underhill, T. M., Hinz, B., & Rossi, F. M. V. (2021) · Cell Stem Cell · doi:10.1016/j.stem.2021.09.001 · Cited by 147 · see citing works
Ali, D., Tencerova, M., Figeac, F., Kassem, M., & Jafari, A. (2022) · Frontiers in Endocrinology · doi:10.3389/fendo.2022.981487 · Cited by 122 · see citing works
The effects of age and systemic metabolism on anti-tumor T cell responses
Drijvers, J. M., Sharpe, A. H., & Haigis, M. C. (2020) · eLife · doi:10.7554/elife.62420 · Cited by 69 · see citing works
Targeting aging and age-related diseases with vaccines
Wu, R., Sun, F., Zhang, W., Ren, J., & Liu, G.-H. (2024) · Nature Aging · doi:10.1038/s43587-024-00597-0 · Cited by 66 · see citing works
Doolittle, M. L., Saul, D., Kaur, J., Rowsey, J. L., Vos, S. J., Pavelko, K. D., Farr, J. N., Monroe, D. G., & Khosla, S. (2023) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/s41467-023-40393-9 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
Doolittle, M. L., Saul, D., Kaur, J., Rowsey, J. L., Vos, S. J., Pavelko, K. D., Farr, J. N., Monroe, D. G., & Khosla, S. (2023) · doi:10.1101/2023.01.12.523760 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
Bone marrow niches for hematopoietic stem cells: Life span dynamics and adaptation to acute stress
Hofmann, J., & Kokkaliaris, K. D. (2024) · Blood · doi:10.1182/blood.2023023788 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
Marrow adiposity and hematopoiesis in aging and obesity: exercise as an intervention
Patel, V. S., Ete Chan, M., Rubin, J., & Rubin, C. T. (2018) · Current Osteoporosis Reports · doi:10.1007/s11914-018-0424-1 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
The bone marrow hematopoietic niche and its adaptation to infection
Gomes, A. C., Saraiva, M., & Gomes, M. S. (2021) · Seminars in Cell & Developmental Biology · doi:10.1016/j.semcdb.2020.05.014 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Zhang, X., Tian, L., Majumdar, A., & Scheller, E. L. (2024) · Comprehensive Physiology · doi:10.1002/j.2040-4603.2024.tb00300.x · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Russo, S., Scotto di Carlo, F., Maurizi, A., Fortunato, G., Teti, A., Licastro, D., Settembre, C., Mello, T., & Gianfrancesco, F. (2023) · Bone Research · doi:10.1038/s41413-023-00250-3 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
- Authors
- Ambrosi, T. H., Scialdone, A., Graja, A., Gohlke, S., Jank, A.-M., Bocian, C., Woelk, L., Fan, H., Logan, D. W., Schürmann, A., Saraiva, L. R., & Schulz, T. J.
- Affiliations
- German Institute of Human Nutrition (DE)
- European Bioinformatics Institute (GB)
- Charité – Universitätsmedizin Berlin (DE)
- Monell Chemical Senses Center (US)
- German Center for Diabetes Research (DE)
- Corresponding author
- Schulz, Tim J.
- ORCID
- Venue
- Cell Stem Cell
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2017-06
- Volume
- 20
- Issue
- 6
- Pages
- 771-784.e6
- ISSN
- 1875-9777 (ISSN-L)
- 1934-5909
- PMC
- PMC5459794
- OpenAlex
- W2595342131
- Cited by
- 856
- References
- 52
- Citations by year
- 2026: 86 · 2025: 75 · 2024: 92 · 2023: 124 · 2022: 105 · 2021: 95 · 2020: 106 · 2019: 85 · 2018: 71 · 2017: 17
- FWCI
- 43.58
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Cell stem cell (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- European Research Council (ERC-StG 311082)
- German Research Foundation (DFG (SCHU 2445/2-1)
- German Ministry of Education and Research
- State of Brandenburg (82DZD00302)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Genetics › Mesenchymal stem cell research
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Hematology › Hematopoietic Stem Cell Transplantation
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Molecular Biology › Bone Metabolism and Diseases
- Keywords
- bone marrow, obesity, aging, hematopoietic regeneration, bone regeneration, mesenchymal stem cells, hematopoietic niche, competitive repopulation, high-fat diet, dipeptidyl peptidase IV, bone marrow adipose tissue
- MeSH terms
- Aging, Animals, Bone Marrow, Bone Regeneration, Hematopoiesis, Mice, Transgenic, Obesity, Adipocytes, Dipeptidyl Peptidase 4, Mice
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
