Treatment of macular degeneration using embryonic stem cell-derived retinal pigment epithelium: Preliminary results in Asian patients
Open accessAbstract
Embryonic stem cells hold great promise for various diseases because of their unlimited capacity for self-renewal and ability to differentiate into any cell type in the body. However, despite over 3 decades of research, there have been no reports on the safety and potential efficacy of pluripotent stem cell progeny in Asian patients with any disease. Here, we report the safety and tolerability of subretinal transplantation of human embryonic-stem-cell (hESC)-derived retinal pigment epithelium in four Asian patients: two with dry age-related macular degeneration and two with Stargardt macular dystrophy. They were followed for 1 year. There was no evidence of adverse proliferation, tumorigenicity, ectopic tissue formation, or other serious safety issues related to the transplanted cells. Visual acuity improved 9-19 letters in three patients and remained stable (+1 letter) in one patient. The results confirmed that hESC-derived cells could serve as a potentially safe new source for regenerative medicine.
AI snapshot
Written from the paper’s full text.
TL;DR
Subretinal transplantation of human embryonic stem cell-derived retinal pigment epithelium (hESC-RPE) in four Asian patients with dry age-related macular degeneration or Stargardt macular dystrophy showed no evidence of adverse proliferation, tumorigenicity, ectopic tissue formation, or other serious safety issues related to the transplanted cells over 1 year. Visual acuity improved 9–19 letters in three patients and remained stable (+1 letter) in one.
Key findings
- In four Asian patients (two with dry AMD, two with SMD) followed for 1 year, there was no evidence of adverse proliferation, tumorigenicity, ectopic tissue formation, or other serious safety issues related to the transplanted cells.
- Visual acuity improved 9–19 letters in three patients and remained stable (+1 letter) in one patient; no treated eye showed visual acuity decline.
- In the two dry AMD patients, treated-eye visual acuity changed by +1 letter and +9 letters at 52 weeks, while fellow untreated eyes decreased by 6 and 20 letters.
- In the two SMD patients, treated-eye visual acuity improved by 12 and 19 letters, compared with 9 letters of improvement in fellow eyes at 52 weeks.
Methods
- Open-label clinical trials of subretinal hESC-derived RPE transplantation in patients with dry AMD and SMD; patients were followed for 1 year.
- hESC-RPE cells were manufactured from the MA09 hESC line under GMP conditions; surgery delivered 150 μl of RPE in BSS Plus via a 38-G subretinal cannula, with a target dose of 5 × 10⁴ RPE cells.
- Immunosuppression used tacrolimus and mycophenolate mofetil, started 1 week before surgery and continued per protocol; monitoring included BCVA, Goldmann and/or Humphrey visual fields, fundus photography, fluorescein angiography, SD-OCT, fundus autofluorescence, ERG, and mfERG.
Limitations
- The paper states the study was open-label, had a small sample size, and was not powered to detect visual acuity improvement; visual acuity data were primarily interpreted as a safety parameter.
- The paper states patients had poor preoperative visual function and large central scotomas, which hindered reliable visual function measurements; Humphrey visual fields were unreliable in nearly all participants.
- The paper states that subretinal pigmentation is not a robust marker of donor cells, that graft rejection could not be ruled out, and that continued follow-up and further study are needed for long-term safety and efficacy; evident from the text, the study included only four patients, lacked a control group, and reported only 1-year follow-up.
Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.
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Cites
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Claims the paper makes
0 of 9 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged
- Findingown data
The two dry AMD patients developed epiretinal membranes with pigmentation.
“The two dry AMD patients developed epiretinal membranes with pigmentation.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
In the two dry AMD patients, visual acuity in the fellow untreated eyes decreased by 6 and 20 letters during the same 52-week period.
“In contrast, the fellow (untreated) eyes decreased by 6 and 20 letters, respectively, during the same time period.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
In the two dry AMD patients, visual acuity in the treated eyes improved by one letter and nine letters at 52 weeks.
“In the two dry-AMD patients, visual acuity in the treated eyes improved by one letter (stable at counting fingers at 4 ft) and nine letters (a two-line improvement from 20/320 to 20/200) at 52 weeks, respectively.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
No serious systemic or ocular adverse events occurred in the four Asian patients.
“No serious systemic or ocular adverse events occurred in these four Asian patients.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
The second dry AMD patient developed intraretinal cysts and dye pooling on fluorescein angiography that did not change for 52 weeks after surgery.
“The second dry AMD patient developed intraretinal cysts and dye pooling on fluorescein angiography that did not change for 52 weeks after surgery.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
- Findingown data
Immunosuppressive medication was stopped in the first dry AMD patient because of repeated deterioration of renal function, including creatinine and potassium level elevation.
“Immunosuppressive medication was stopped in the first patient because of repeated deterioration of renal function, including creatinine and potassium level elevation.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingcitation
Increasing subretinal pigmentation developed at the hESC-RPE cell injection site in two dry AMD patients and one SMD patient.
“In the two dry AMD patients and one SMD patient, increasing subretinal pigmentation developed at the hESC-RPE cell injection site as has been noted previously (Schwartz et al., 2012, Schwartz et al., 2015).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked - Findingown data
Visual acuity improved by 9 to 19 letters in three of the four treated patients.
“Visual acuity improved 9–19 letters in three patients”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
In the two SMD patients, visual acuity in the fellow eyes improved by nine letters at 52 weeks compared to baseline.
“compared with nine letters of improvement in the fellow eyes at 52 weeks compared to baseline.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
Visual acuity remained stable, with a change of +1 letter, in one of the four treated patients.
“remained stable (+1 letter) in one patient”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingnone given
The dosage of immunosuppression per protocol could be continued in three patients.
“We could continue the dosage of immunosuppression per protocol in three patients.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
The pre-retinal patches of pigmentation did not contract and cause macular wrinkling enough to require additional surgery during the follow-up interval.
“These pre-retinal patches of pigmentation did not contract and cause macular wrinkling enough to require additional surgery during the follow-up interval.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
Multiple spots of increased autofluorescence were observed at the injection sites in the second dry AMD patient and the second SMD patient.
“In the second dry AMD patient and the second SMD patient, multiple spots of increased autofluorescence were also observed at the injection sites.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
There was no decline in visual acuity in any of the four treated eyes.
“It is important to note that there was no decline in visual acuity in any of the four eyes.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Ophthalmological examinations, including ETDRS visual acuity, visual field examination, color fundus photography, fundus fluorescein angiography, optical coherence tomography, fundus autofluorescence photography, ERG, and mfERG, did not identify any significant safety concerns after surgery.
“Ophthalmological examinations, including ETDRS visual acuity, visual field examination, color fundus photography, fundus fluorescein angiography, optical coherence tomography, fundus autofluorescence photography, ERG, and mfERG did not identify any significant safety concerns after surgery.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
The first dry AMD patient developed choroidal neovascularization in the hESC-RPE transplanted eye at 33 weeks.
“The first dry AMD patient developed CNV in the hESC-RPE transplanted eye at 33 weeks.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Quality control testing confirmed the pathogen- and virus-free status of clinical samples by sterility, mycoplasma, and endotoxin detection following Korean Pharmacopoeia and MFDS guidelines.
“On further safety analysis through quality control testing, we confirmed the pathogen- and virus-free status of clinical samples by sterility, mycoplasma, and endotoxin detection following the Korean Pharmacopoeia and the Ministry of Food and Drug Safety (MFDS) guidelines for pathogen and virus testing.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
FACS using fluorescent labels for OCT-4 and TRA-1-60 demonstrated no contamination by hESCs in the final product (PRE-0008) when 10,000 cells were analyzed for each marker.
“Additionally, we performed FACS using fluorescent labels for OCT-4 and TRA-1-60 and demonstrated no contamination by hESCs in the final product (PRE-0008) when 10,000 cells were analyzed for each marker: OCT-4, 0.28%; TRA-1-60, 0.02%”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Most hRPE cells could phagocytize fluorescently labeled beads.
“Visual imaging of the differentiated hESC-derived RPE cells with fluorescence microscopy showed that most hRPE cells could phagocytize the fluorescently labeled beads”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
16-STR genetic analysis proved that the RPE cells originated from MA09.
“16-STR (short tandem repeat) genetic analysis using amplified genomic DNA (gDNA) proved that RPE cells originated from MA09.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
More than 99% of the hESC-derived RPE cells expressed hRPE markers.
“We observed that >99% of cells expressed hRPE markers.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
The hESC-derived RPE cells had a normal female karyotype (46XX).
“Karyotype results using g-banding showed 46XX, a normal female karyotype”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Premisecitation
Native adult RPE cells may proliferate and migrate within 72 hours after retinal detachment in cats.
“prior studies have shown that native adult RPE cells may proliferate and migrate within 72 hr after retinal detachment in cats (Anderson et al., 1981)”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Anderson et al., 1981
Not checked in the free run.
- Study design and conductown data
The sample size in these studies (SMD phase 1: 3 patients; dry AMD phase 1/2a: total of 12 patients, with 3 for each dose) was not powered to detect an improvement in visual acuity.
“The sample size in these studies (SMD phase 1: 3 patients; dry AMD phase 1/2a: total of 12 patients, with 3 for each dose) was not powered to detect an improvement in visual acuity.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationown data
hESC-derived cells could serve as a potentially safe new source for regenerative medicine.
“The results confirmed that hESC-derived cells could serve as a potentially safe new source for regenerative medicine.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: There are no known effective treatments to prevent or reverse visual loss for either dry age-related macular degeneration or Stargardt macular dystrophy.
- Premisecitation
A previous report showed a relatively high rate of development of choroidal neovascularization (23%) in eyes with drusenoid pigment epithelial detachment with no advanced AMD at baseline.
“A previous report showed a relatively high rate of development of CNV (23%) in eyes with drusenoid PED with no advanced AMD at baseline (Cukras et al., 2010).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Cukras et al., 2010 source
Not checked in the free run.
- Interpretationreasoning
The observation of intraretinal cysts and dye pooling does not rule out the possibility of graft rejection in the second dry AMD patient.
“However, this does not rule out the possibility of graft rejection.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Premisecitation
Subretinal pigmentation and stippled hyper-autofluorescence spots after subretinal hESC-RPE injection have not been reported in eyes after similar procedures with Ca- and Mg-free solution in other trials where transient retinal detachment was performed for subretinal viral vector administration.
“It is important to note that the subretinal pigmentation and stippled hyper-autofluorescence spots noted after subretinal hESC-RPE injection have not been reported in eyes after similar procedures with Ca- and Mg-free solution in other trials where transient retinal detachment was performed in order to achieve subretinal viral vector administration (Maguire et al., 2008).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Maguire et al., 2008 source
Not checked in the free run.
- Study design and conductown data
The comparability of MA09-hRPE cells manufactured from both GMP sites (CHA Biotech versus Ocata Therapeutics) was confirmed by characterizing the MA09-hRPE cells in terms of karyotype, genetic analysis, identity, purity, and potency by using real-time PCR, immunocytochemistry, FACS analysis, and phagocytosis assays.
“The comparability of MA09-hRPE cells manufactured from both GMP sites (CHA Biotech versus Ocata Therapeutics) was confirmed by characterizing the MA09-hRPE cells in terms of karyotype, genetic analysis, identity, purity, and potency by using real-time PCR, immunocytochemistry, FACS analysis, and phagocytosis assays (Supplemental Information).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Interpretationown data
The rate of epiretinal membrane development in the two dry AMD patients is relatively high compared with the rate after the vitrectomy procedure.
“This is relatively high compared with the rate of epiretinal membrane development after the vitrectomy procedure.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Study design and conductown data
Humphrey visual field examinations were unreliable because of poor fixation and high false-negatives in nearly all participants.
“Humphrey visual field examinations were unreliable because of poor fixation and high false-negatives in nearly all of the participants.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
- May combine two claims. 13
- Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 10
May combine two claims.
Findingown dataIn four Asian patients with dry age-related macular degeneration or Stargardt macular dystrophy followed for 1 year after subretinal transplantation of hESC-derived retinal pigment epithelium, there was no evidence of adverse proliferation, tumorigenicity, ectopic tissue formation, or other serious safety issues related to the transplanted cells.
“There was no evidence of adverse proliferation, tumorigenicity, ectopic tissue formation, or other serious safety issues related to the transplanted cells.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataModerate adverse events related to immunosuppression included creatinine level elevation in the first dry AMD patient and pneumonia in the second dry AMD patient.
“The moderate adverse events related to immunosuppression included creatinine level elevation in the first dry AMD patient and pneumonia in the second dry AMD patient.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataThe location of the choroidal neovascularization was not primarily in the bleb area, and only the superior margin of the CNV adjoined the inferior margin of the previous bleb location.
“The location of the CNV was not primarily in the bleb area, and only the superior margin of the CNV adjoined the inferior margin of the previous bleb location.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataNo clinically significant intraocular inflammation and no signs of obvious immune rejection, including fluid collection, edema, fibrous membrane formation, persistent leakage on fluorescein angiography, or graying or loss of pigmentation of the graft, were observed in patients who underwent graft transplantation and maintained systemic immunosuppression.
“We did not observe any clinically significant intraocular inflammation and detected no signs of obvious immune rejection including fluid collection, edema, fibrous membrane formation, persistent leakage on fluorescein angiography, or graying or loss of pigmentation of the graft in patients who underwent graft transplantation and were able to maintain systemic immunosuppression.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataIn the two SMD patients, visual acuity in the treated eyes improved by 12 letters and 19 letters at 52 weeks.
“In the two SMD patients, visual acuity improved in the treated eyes by 12 letters (counting fingers at 2 ft to 20/640) and 19 letters (a four-line improvement from 20/640 to 20/250), respectively”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataAll patients were followed for at least 1 year, and using color fundus photography, autofluorescence imaging, and SD-OCT with 3-μm resolution, no unwanted abnormal proliferation suggesting teratoma formation was found.
“All of our patients were followed for at least 1 year, and, using color fundus photography, autofluorescence imaging, and SD-OCT with 3-μm resolution, we found no unwanted abnormal proliferation suggesting teratoma formation.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataThere was no significant change in visual field and mfERG examinations in these eyes.
“There was no significant change in the visual field and mfERG examinations in these eyes.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataThe first dry AMD patient had drusenoid subretinal accumulation with geographic atrophy in the study eye and drusenoid pigment epithelial detachment in the fellow eye.
“This patient had drusenoid subretinal accumulation with GA in the study eye and drusenoid pigment epithelial detachment (PED) in the fellow eye.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataThe hESC-derived RPE displayed typical RPE behavior, including pigmentation during differentiation and maturation, and exhibited a cuboidal epithelial morphology in tissue culture.
“The hESC-derived RPE displayed typical RPE behavior, such as pigmentation during differentiation and maturation, and also exhibited a cuboidal epithelial morphology in tissue culture.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
InterpretationreasoningThe epiretinal membranes may arise from inadvertent pre-retinal injection of cells or reflux of transplanted cells from the subretinal space.
“It may arise from inadvertent pre-retinal injection of cells or reflux of transplanted cells from the subretinal space.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
InterpretationcitationMigration of host RPE and ingestion of pigment by these cells may explain the appearance of subretinal pigment after hESC-RPE injection.
“migration of host RPE and ingestion of pigment by these cells may also explain the appearance of subretinal pigment after hESC-RPE injection.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
Interpretationown dataThe present report confirmed the feasibility and preliminary safety of hESC-RPE cell therapy.
“The present report confirmed the feasibility and preliminary safety of hESC-RPE cell therapy.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: There are no known effective treatments to prevent or reverse visual loss for either dry age-related macular degeneration or Stargardt macular dystrophy.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
InterpretationreasoningThe retinal cyst in the second dry AMD patient may have accompanied the epiretinal membrane.
“The retinal cyst may have accompanied the epiretinal membrane in this patient.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Study design and conductnone givenhESC-derived RPE cells were manufactured in a fully validated good-manufacturing-practice facility under strict environmental control monitoring systems and routine microbial testing regimens at CHA Biotech.
“hESC-derived RPE cells were manufactured in a fully validated good-manufacturing-practice (GMP) facility under strict environmental control monitoring systems and routine microbial testing regimens at CHA Biotech.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimClassified as probably not a substantial claim.
PremisecitationTeratoma formation is observed within 8 weeks.
“Teratoma formation is observed within 8 weeks (Klimanskaya et al., 2005).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Klimanskaya et al., 2005
Not checked in the free run.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
PremisecitationCystoid macular edema is present in approximately 20% to 40% of patients with epiretinal membrane.
“Cystoid macular edema is present in approximately 20%–40% of patients with epiretinal membrane (Wickham and Gregor, 2013).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Wickham and Gregor, 2013
Not checked in the free run.
May combine two claims.
PremisecitationPrevious allogeneic RPE cell transplantations in dry AMD resulted in graft rejections in some cases, although rejection started later and was seen less frequently than in patients with wet AMD.
“Previous allogeneic RPE cell transplantations in dry AMD resulted in graft rejections in some cases, although it started later in the treatment course and was seen less frequently than in patients with wet AMD (Algvere et al., 1997, Algvere et al., 1999).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checkedProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
InterpretationreasoningThe choroidal neovascularization in the first dry AMD patient may have developed as a natural course, or it may have been due to trauma to Bruch's membrane during the surgical procedure or from the injected hESC-RPE.
“The CNV may have developed as a natural course, or it may have been due to trauma to Bruch’s membrane during the surgical procedure or from the injected hESC-RPE.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Study design and conductnone givenMFDS and CHA Bundang Medical Center institutional review board approval was obtained to carry out two prospective clinical trials evaluating the safety and tolerability of the cells in patients with SMD and dry AMD.
“The MFDS and CHA Bundang Medical Center institutional review board (IRB) approval was obtained to carry out two prospective clinical trials to evaluate the safety and tolerability of the cells in patients with SMD and dry AMD (registered with ClinicalTrials.gov [https://clinicaltrials.gov]; numbers NCT01625559 and NCT01674829).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).
Interpretationnone givenThe visual acuity improvement noted in the fellow eyes of SMD patients may be due to poorer baseline visual acuity than in the fellow eyes of the dry AMD patients.
“The visual acuity improvement noted in the fellow eyes of SMD patients may be due to poorer baseline visual acuity than in the fellow eyes of the dry AMD patients.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Study design and conductown dataSurgeries were carried out at CHA Bundang Medical Center by a single surgeon.
“Surgeries were carried out at the CHA Bundang Medical Center by a single surgeon (W.K.S.).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
The paper relies on this without support.
There are no known effective treatments to prevent or reverse visual loss for either dry age-related macular degeneration or Stargardt macular dystrophy.
“There are no known effective treatments to prevent or reverse visual loss for either disease.”
The paper relies on this without support.
No prior pluripotent stem cell trials have been performed in Asian patients.
“Our report provides interim results of the first pluripotent stem cell trials performed in Asian patients”
The paper relies on this without support.
Pigment is not a robust marker of donor cells because ingestion of donor pigment by host macrophages may produce a similar ophthalmoscopic appearance.
“However, it is known that pigment is not a robust marker of donor cells, since ingestion of donor pigment by host macrophages may produce a similar ophthalmoscopic appearance.”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
Since then, other clinical trials have been carried out resulting in clinically measurable visual improvements.
“Since then, other clinical trials have been carried out resulting in clinically measurable visual improvements [76,77].”
From Utility of iPSC-Derived Cells for Disease Modeling, Drug Development, and Cell Therapy (2022) · cites this paper as [77]
The Discussion reports measurable visual-acuity improvements at 52 weeks in several treated eyes, including a 19-letter gain in one patient. But it cautions that the preliminary trials were not powered to detect improved visual acuity and that these measurements should primarily be interpreted as safety data. The sentence therefore overstates the evidence if “resulting in” implies that the trials established a treatment benefit. (LLM, conf=0.84)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
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- Authors
- Song, W. K., Park, K.-M., Kim, H.-J., Lee, J. H., Choi, J., Chong, S. Y., Shim, S. H., Del Priore, L. V., & Lanza, R.
- Affiliations
- CHA University Bundang Medical Center (KR)
- CHA University (KR)
- Advanced Cell Technology (United States) (US)
- Corresponding author
- Song, Won Kyung
- Lanza, Robert
- Venue
- Stem Cell Reports
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2015-05
- Volume
- 4
- Issue
- 5
- Pages
- 860-872
- ISSN
- 2213-6711 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC4437471
- OpenAlex
- W2016602601
- Semantic Scholar
- 61a1d3b03cdd5251b625bd8decaba996c505a0d5
- Cited by
- 393
- References
- 36
- Citations by year
- 2026: 12 · 2025: 23 · 2024: 27 · 2023: 25 · 2022: 34 · 2021: 42 · 2020: 42 · 2019: 36 · 2018: 47 · 2017: 45 · 2016: 41 · 2015: 18
- FWCI
- 21.84
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Locations
- Stem Cell Reports (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
- Funders
- Genentech
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Molecular Biology › Retinal Development and Disorders
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Ophthalmology › Retinal Diseases and Treatments
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Molecular Biology › Pluripotent Stem Cells Research
- Keywords
- macular degeneration, dry age-related macular degeneration, Stargardt disease, subretinal transplantation, cell therapy safety, visual acuity outcomes, Asian patients, pluripotent stem cells, regenerative medicine
- MeSH terms
- Stargardt Disease, Aged, Cell Differentiation, Electroretinography, Female, Humans, Macular Degeneration, Male, Middle Aged, Visual Acuity, Asian People, Embryonic Stem Cells, Retinal Pigment Epithelium
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Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
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