Oxytocin and cooperation under conditions of uncertainty: the modulating role of incentives and social information.

Neuroimaging studies in humans have largely substantiated the view that human attachment relies on conserved hormonal machinery.

“Neuroimaging studies in humans have largely substantiated this view.”

Analogous activation patterns are seen in adults who are exposed to images of their romantic partner as opposed to images of a platonic acquaintance.

“Finally, analogous activation patterns are seen in adults who are exposed to images of their romantic partner— with whom they report being “intensely in love”—as opposed to images of a platonic acquaintance [44].”

OXT can promote risk aversion and noncooperation toward individuals perceived as outsiders.

“since OXT can also promote risk aversion (Declerck et al., 2010) and noncooperation toward individuals perceived as outsiders (De Dreu, 2012).”

Human studies show that the behavioral effects of AVP and OXT depend on social contextual factors.

“There are also human studies showing that the behavioral effects of AVP and OXT depend on social contextual factors (Declerck et al., 2010; Bartz et al., 2011; Rilling et al., 2012; Olff et al., 2013).”

Anxiety caused by oxytocin could account for the different ways oxytocin influences reactions to familiar in-group versus unfamiliar out-group members.

“Although the finding of increased anxiety following OT administration does not directly inform on OT’s pro-social effects, it may explain why OT affects responses to in-group (familiar) and out-group (unfamiliar) members differently.2,3”

Oxytocin boosts anti-social behaviors towards unfamiliar individuals.

“OT boosts anti-social behaviors towards unfamiliar individuals.2,3”

OT enhances coordination on the cooperative outcome in an assurance game, but this effect depends on prior contact with game partners; in anonymous interactions, OT causes players to be more risk-averse.

“Finally, OT appears to enhance coordination on the cooperative outcome in an assurance game, but this effect is dependent on participants having had prior contact with their game partners.If the interactions proceed completely anonymously, OT caused players to be more risk-averse (Declerck et al., 2010).”

Contextual factors that are congruent with this motivation increase prosocial behavior, whereas contextual factors that work against the goal decrease prosocial behavior.

“Contextual factors that are congruent with this motivation increase prosocial behavior, whereas contextual factors that work against the goal should decrease prosocial behavior”

An earlier study comparing only the effects of OT and prior contact on cooperation reported a significant interaction for the assurance game, but not for the PD.

“An earlier study (Declerck et al., 2010) comparing only the effects of OT and prior contact on cooperation reported a significant interaction for the assurance game, but not for the PD.”

Exogenous oxytocin makes prosocials less sensitive to context.

“The latter finding suggests that exogenous OT would make prosocials less sensitive to context, which seems to contradict OT's presumed role of increasing the saliency of social cues reported earlier (e.g., Declerck et al., 2010).”

In the assurance game, social value orientation has no additional influence beyond the oxytocin × prior contact effect.

“Because in this game prosocials and proselfs are equally motivated to cooperate, it is not surprising that SVO has no additional influence beyond the OT Â prior contact effect reported earlier (Declerck et al., 2010).”

In the assurance game, prosocials and proselfs are equally motivated to cooperate.

“Because in this game prosocials and proselfs are equally motivated to cooperate, it is not surprising that SVO has no additional influence beyond the OT Â prior contact effect reported earlier (Declerck et al., 2010).”

Oxytocin did not improve social cooperation when social partners were perceived to be untrustworthy, uncooperative, or antagonistic.

“Further, oxytocin did not improve social cooperation when social partners were perceived to be untrustworthy (Mikolajczak et al., 2010a), uncooperative (Declerck et al., 2010), or antagonistic (Shamay-Tsoory et al. 2009; but see Baumgartner et al. 2008 for an exception).”

In that study, intranasal oxytocin significantly increased coordination on the mutually beneficial alternative strategy, but only if participants first had the opportunity to introduce themselves to the whole group of participants from which one was randomly drawn to become the partner.

“It turned out that intranasal OT significantly increased coordination on the mutually beneficial alternative strategy, but only if participants first had the opportunity to introduce themselves to the whole group of participants from which one was randomly drawn to become the partner.”

Without prior contact, oxytocin significantly reduced coordination on the alternative strategy.

“Without this prior contact, OT significantly reduced coordination on the alternative strategy.31”

The importance of establishing some minimal social contact with real partners was corroborated in a large N = 254 behavioral study in which participants, who did not know each other's identity, needed to trust each other to jointly solve a coordination game.

“The importance of establishing some minimal social contact with real partners was corroborated in a large (N = 254) behavioral study 31 in which participants, who did not know each other's identity, needed to trust each other to jointly solve a coordination game.”

OT does not always promote approach behaviors; its effects depend on context and individual differences.

“Yet OT does not always promote approach behaviors, and has been shown to be dependent both on context and on individual differences.For example, in some contexts OT has been shown to promote risk aversion (Declerck et al., 2010), envy (Shamay-Tsoory et al., 2009) and lack of cooperation with perceived out-group members (De Dreu et al., 2010).”