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Cited by 98Neuroendocrine regulation and behaviorPersonality Traits and PsychologyOlfactory and Sensory Function Studies

Acute intranasal oxytocin improves positive self-perceptions of personality

Cardoso, Christopher, Ellenbogen, Mark A., Linnen, Anne-Marie·2012·Psychopharmacology
DOI 10.1007/s00213-011-2527-6
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Abstract

Rationale Research suggests the experimental manipulation of oxytocin facilitates positive interactions, cooperation, and trust. The mechanism by which oxytocin influences social behavior is not well understood.Objective We explored the hypothesis that oxytocin alters how people perceive themselves, which could be one mechanism by which oxytocin promotes prosocial behavior.Method In a between-subject, randomized, and double-blind experiment, 100 university students received a 24 I.U. dose of intranasal oxytocin or placebo, and then completed the Revised NEO Personality Inventory (NEO-PI-R) and other self-report measures 90 min later.Results Intranasal oxytocin increased ratings of NEO-PI-R extraversion and openness to experiences [F(1,98) = 4.910, p = .025, partial η (2) = .05; F(1,98) = 6.021, p = .016, partial η (2) = .06], particularly for the following facets: positive emotions (d = 0.48, p < .05), warmth (d = 0.47, p < .05), openness to values (d = 0.45, p < .05) and ideas (d = 0.40, p < .05), trust (d = 0.44, p < .05), and altruism (d = 0.40, p < .05). Oxytocin had no influence on ratings of negative emotionality, conscientiousness, rejection sensitivity, depression, worry, self-esteem, and perceived social support.Conclusion The administration of oxytocin improved participants' self-perceptions of their personality, at least for certain traits important for social affiliation. Increased positive self-referential processing may be one mechanism by which oxytocin promotes positive social behaviors.

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Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

In a double-blind, randomized between-subjects experiment, 100 healthy university students who self-administered 24 I.U. of intranasal oxytocin reported higher extraversion and openness to experiences on the NEO-PI-R than placebo recipients, while other personality factors and clinical/self-report measures were unaffected. The authors propose that increased positive self-referential processing may be one mechanism by which oxytocin promotes prosocial behavior.

Key findings

  • Oxytocin increased self-reported extraversion (F(1,98) = 4.910, p = .025, partial η² = .05) and openness to experiences (F(1,98) = 6.021, p = .016, partial η² = .06); no effects on neuroticism (p = .539), agreeableness (p = .530), or conscientiousness (p = .981).
  • Facet-level effects: positive emotions (d = 0.48), warmth (d = 0.47), openness to values (d = 0.45), openness to ideas (d = 0.40), trust (d = 0.44), and altruism (d = 0.40), all p < .05.
  • No oxytocin effect on rejection sensitivity, depression, worry, self-esteem, perceived social support, or goal adjustment; mood and subjective stress ratings also did not differ between conditions.
  • A drug × sex interaction emerged for BDI depressive symptoms (F(1,96) = 4.581, p = .035), but follow-up simple comparisons were non-significant (men: t(48) = -1.924, p = .063; women: t(48) = 1.185, p = .242).

Methods

  • Between-subject, randomized, double-blind design: 100 healthy university students aged 18–35 (50 women), randomized to 24 I.U. intranasal oxytocin (n = 48) or saline placebo (n = 52); groups balanced on sex, age, menstrual phase, and oral contraceptive use.
  • Participants self-administered the spray 50 minutes before the Yale Interpersonal Stressor (a social rejection paradigm) and completed the NEO-PI-R plus other self-report measures (ISEL, RSQ, BDI-II, RSE, PSWQ, GAQ) 90 minutes post-administration.
  • Analyses: drug × sex MANOVAs/ANOVAs on the five NEO-PI-R factors and other scales, planned comparisons on agreeableness facets, MANCOVAs for oral contraceptive/menstrual phase confounds, and Sobel mediation tests for stress/negative affect.

Limitations

  • Stated by the paper: questionnaires were administered after a social rejection paradigm, so findings could reflect a combined drug–stressor effect (though the authors argue this is unlikely given null mood/stress differences and non-significant mediation); mental illness was screened by self-report rather than structured diagnostic interview; the placebo contained saline without the inactive compounds in the oxytocin spray; no dose-response/absorption data; the 90-minute testing delay differs from the more typical 45 minutes; and self-reported menstrual cycle/contraceptive data are not fully reliable.
  • Evident from the text: the sample is restricted to healthy, medication-free, non-smoking university students aged 18–35, limiting generalizability; the study reports only acute, single-dose effects, so nothing can be said about durability or repeated administration.

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Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1007/s00213-011-2527-6

Cites

56 of 56 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

57 tests recomputed · 0 with the reported and recomputed p on opposite sides of .05

Claims the paper makes

0 of 45 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged

  • Findingown data
    § Acute Intranasal Oxytocin Improves Positive Self-Perceptions of Personality Christopher Cardoso

    Oxytocin had no influence on ratings of self-esteem.

    “Oxytocin had no influence on ratings of negative emotionality, conscientiousness, rejection sensitivity, depression, worry, self-esteem, and perceived social support.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Findingown data
    § The effect of drug administration on personality

    Oxytocin administration was associated with higher ratings of warmth on the extraversion scale.

    “Oxytocin administration was associated with higher ratings of positive emotions ( d = 0.48, p < .05) and warmth ( d = 0.47, p < .05) on the extraversion scale, and openness to values ( d = 0.45, p < .05) and ideas ( d = 0.40, p < .05) on the openness to experience scale following planned comparisons on facets of the NEO-PI-R.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data
    § Acute Intranasal Oxytocin Improves Positive Self-Perceptions of Personality Christopher Cardoso

    Oxytocin had no influence on ratings of perceived social support.

    “Oxytocin had no influence on ratings of negative emotionality, conscientiousness, rejection sensitivity, depression, worry, self-esteem, and perceived social support.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Findingown data
    § Acute Intranasal Oxytocin Improves Positive Self-Perceptions of Personality Christopher Cardoso

    Intranasal oxytocin increased NEO-PI-R openness to experiences ratings compared with placebo.

    “Intranasal oxytocin increased ratings of NEO-PI-R extraversion and openness to experiences ( F (1,98) = 4.910, p = .025, partial η 2 = .05; F (1,98) = 6.021, p = .016, partial η 2 = .06)”
    • Also stated in: § The effect of drug administration on personality · plain
      “Participants reported higher extraversion and openness to experiences following oxytocin administration (See Figure 1)”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data
    § The effect of drug administration on personality

    Ratings of trust were higher following oxytocin administration.

    “Ratings of trust ( d = 0.44, p < .05) and altruism ( d = 0.40, p < .05) were higher following oxytocin administration.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • May combine two claims. 11
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 31

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data
    § Discussion

    Oxytocin had no effect on how participants perceived their trait negative emotionality, conscientiousness, rejection sensitivity, worry, self-esteem, symptoms of depression, or ability to disengage from thwarted goals.

    “Oxytocin had no effect on how participants perceived their trait negative emotionality, conscientiousness, rejection sensitivity, worry, self-esteem, symptoms of depression, or ability to disengage from thwarted goals.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data
    § The effect of drug administration on clinical symptoms, social support, and other questionnaires

    There was a statistical trend for the interaction between sex and drug condition on RSE (global self-esteem) scores.

    “a statistical trend for the interaction between sex and drug condition on scores Note: N = 48 a , N = 52 b on the RSE (global self-esteem)”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation
    § Discussion

    Neither the mood nor subjective stress ratings were influenced by intranasal oxytocin.

    “Neither the mood (Linnen et al., 2012) nor subjective stress ratings were influenced by intranasal oxytocin.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Linnen et al., 2012

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    Findingown data
    § The effect of drug administration on clinical symptoms, social support, and other questionnaires

    There was a statistical trend for the effect of sex on the four subscales of the ISEL (social support).

    “We detected no statistical relation between drug condition and the four subscales of the ISEL (social support), a statistical trend for the effect of sex, and no interaction between drug condition and sex”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

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    Findingown data
    § The effect of drug administration on clinical symptoms, social support, and other questionnaires

    Women scored higher on the PSWQ (trait worry) than men.

    “Women (46.02 ± 13.51) scored higher on the PSWQ (trait worry) than men [40.48 ± 12.91; F (1,96) = 4.240, p = .042, partial η 2 = .04]”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation
    § Discussion

    Participants' ratings of negative mood and subjective stress did not differ between the oxytocin and placebo conditions.

    “Participants' ratings of negative mood (Linnen et al., 2012) and subjective stress did not differ between the oxytocin and placebo conditions.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Linnen et al., 2012

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  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation
    § Discussion

    Participants' scores on the NEO-PI-R were within the normal range, and were comparable to an age-matched sample that did not undergo an interpersonal stress challenge or drug administration.

    “In addition, participants' scores on the NEO-PI-R were within the normal range, and were comparable to an age-matched sample that did not undergo an interpersonal stress challenge or drug administration.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Ellenbogen et al. 2012

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    Findingown data
    § Addendum

    Men in the placebo condition reported lower BDI scores than men who administered intranasal oxytocin, but this effect fell short of conventional statistical significance.

    “However, men in the placebo condition reported lower BDI scores (5.32 ± 5.10) relative to participants who administered intranasal oxytocin (7.69 ± 8.02), but this effect fell short of conventional statistical significance [ t (48) = -1.924, p = .063].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Findingown data
    § Discussion

    We did not find an effect of menstrual cycle or contraceptive use in the current study.

    “Finally, it should be noted that while we did not find an effect of menstrual cycle or contraceptive use in the current study”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation
    § Introduction

    Personality traits are stable and enduring.

    “Considering that personality traits are deemed to be stable and enduring (Caspi, Roberts, & Shiner, 2005), this study represents an opportunity to determine whether oxytocin alters core perceptions of the self.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Caspi, Roberts, & Shiner, 2005 source

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S1 (asserted), S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation
    § Introduction

    A common view is that oxytocin alters how social signals in the external environment are processed, encoded, and/or interpreted.

    “While the mechanism by which oxytocin facilitates prosocial behavior is unknown, a common view is that oxytocin alters how social signals in the external environment are processed, encoded, and/or interpreted (Bartz et al., 2010a; Ellenbogen, Linnen, Grumet, Cardoso, & Joober, 2012; Guastella, Mitchell, & Dadds, 2008; Marsh, Yu, Pine, & Blair, 2010; Theodoridou, Rowe, Penton-Voak, & Rogers, 2009).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Bartz et al., 2010a

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    • cites Ellenbogen, Linnen, Grumet, Cardoso, & Joober, 2012

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    • cites Guastella, Mitchell, & Dadds, 2008 source

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  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § Acute Intranasal Oxytocin Improves Positive Self-Perceptions of Personality Christopher Cardoso

    Experimental manipulation of oxytocin facilitates positive interactions, cooperation, and trust.

    “Research suggests the experimental manipulation of oxytocin facilitates positive interactions, cooperation and trust.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Ditzen et al., 2009 source

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    • cites Naber, van Ijzendoorn, Deschamps, van Engeland, & Bakermans-Kranenburg, 2010 source

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    • cites Barraza, McCullough, Ahmadi, & Zak, 2011

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    Premisecitation
    § Introduction

    Acute intranasal oxytocin improves self-perceived coping style in humans.

    “For example, acute intranasal oxytocin improves self-perceived coping style in humans (Cardoso, Linnen, Joober, & Ellenbogen, 2011) and attachment security in adult males (Buchheim et al., 2009).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Cardoso, Linnen, Joober, & Ellenbogen, 2011

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    Premisecitation
    § Introduction

    Acute intranasal oxytocin improves attachment security in adult males.

    “For example, acute intranasal oxytocin improves self-perceived coping style in humans (Cardoso, Linnen, Joober, & Ellenbogen, 2011) and attachment security in adult males (Buchheim et al., 2009).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Buchheim et al., 2009 source

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    Interpretationreasoning
    § Introduction

    Oxytocin-induced changes in self-perception would likely target extraversion and agreeableness, rather than other core personality factors such as neuroticism.

    “Thus, consistent with the prosocial literature on oxytocin, oxytocin-induced changes in selfperception would likely target extraversion and agreeableness, rather than the other core personality factors such as neuroticism.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation
    § Introduction

    The NEO-PI-R has temporal stability across 6 to 9 years.

    “an instrument with excellent psychometric properties (Costa & McCrae, 1992) and temporal stability across 6 to 9 years (Costa, Herbst, McCrae, & Siegler, 2000).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Costa, Herbst, McCrae, & Siegler, 2000 source

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    Study design and conductown data
    § Measures

    The ISEL had good internal consistency in the current sample.

    “The internal consistency for the ISEL ( α = .84) in the current sample was good.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation
    § Discussion

    Intranasal oxytocin has differential effects on social behavior depending on contextual factors.

    “Recent evidence suggests intranasal oxytocin has differential effects on social behavior depending on contextual factors (Bartz et al., 2011).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Bartz et al., 2011

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    Study design and conductown data
    § Measures

    The NEO-PI-R scales had good to excellent internal consistency in the current sample.

    “In the current sample, internal consistencies for the Neuroticism ( α = .93), Extraversion ( α = .90), Openness to experiences ( α = .89), Agreeableness ( α = .90), and Conscientiousness ( α = .91) scales of the NEO-PI-R ranged from good to excellent.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

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    Study design and conductown data
    § Measures

    The RSQ had good internal consistency in the current sample.

    “The internal consistency for the RSQ ( α the current sample was good.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductown data
    § Measures

    The GAQ goal reengagement scale had good internal consistency in the current sample.

    “Internal consistencies for the goal disengagement ( α = .86) and goal reengagement scales ( α = .84) were good in the current sample.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation
    § Introduction

    Intranasal administration of neuropeptides increases their levels in cerebrospinal fluid.

    “Since it was reported that the intranasal administration of neuropeptides increases their levels in cerebrospinal fluid (Born et al., 2002), there has been an upsurge of interest in experimental manipulations of central oxytocin in human populations (Bartz & Hollander, 2006; Campbell 2010; Heinrichs, von Dawans, & Domes, 2009).”
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    • cites Born et al., 2002 source

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    Premisecitation
    § Introduction

    The NEO-PI-R has excellent psychometric properties.

    “an instrument with excellent psychometric properties (Costa & McCrae, 1992) and temporal stability across 6 to 9 years (Costa, Herbst, McCrae, & Siegler, 2000).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Costa & McCrae, 1992

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  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductnone given
    § Procedure

    Both participants and experimenters were blind to the content of the nasal spray.

    “Both the participant and experimenter were blind to the content of the nasal spray.”
    • Also stated in: § Acute Intranasal Oxytocin Improves Positive Self-Perceptions of Personality Christopher Cardoso · plain
      “In a between-subject, randomized, and double-blind experiment, 100 university students received a 24 I.U. dose of intranasal oxytocin or placebo, and then completed the Revised NEO Personality Inventory (NEO-PI-R) and other self-report measures 90 minutes later.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductown data
    § Measures

    The BDI had good internal consistency in the current sample.

    “The internal consistency for the BDI ( α = .89) in the current sample was good.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductown data
    § Participants

    Participants were randomized to intranasal oxytocin or placebo conditions.

    “Forty-eight (24 women) and 52 (26 women) participants were randomized to an intranasal oxytocin and placebo condition, respectively.”
    • Also stated in: § Acute Intranasal Oxytocin Improves Positive Self-Perceptions of Personality Christopher Cardoso · plain
      “In a between-subject, randomized, and double-blind experiment, 100 university students received a 24 I.U. dose of intranasal oxytocin or placebo, and then completed the Revised NEO Personality Inventory (NEO-PI-R) and other self-report measures 90 minutes later.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductown data
    § Measures

    The RSE had excellent internal consistency in the current sample.

    “The internal consistency for the RSE ( α = .90) in the current sample was excellent.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductcitation
    § Procedure

    Mood ratings did not differ between the oxytocin and placebo conditions at any time point.

    “Mood ratings did not differ between the oxytocin and placebo conditions at any time point, and at 80 minutes postdrug administration, mood ratings (higher scores = more positive mood) were 136 ± 36 and 139 ± 34 in the oxytocin and placebo groups, respectively (Linnen et al., 2012).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

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    Premisecitation
    § Procedure

    The Yale Interpersonal Stressor is a standardized social rejection paradigm.

    “the Yale Interpersonal Stressor, a standardized social rejection paradigm (Stroud, TanofskyKraff, Wilfley, & Salovey, 2000; Stroud, Salovey, & Epel, 2002).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Stroud, TanofskyKraff, Wilfley, & Salovey, 2000 source

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    • cites Stroud, Salovey, & Epel, 2002 source

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    Study design and conductown data
    § Measures

    The GAQ goal disengagement scale had good internal consistency in the current sample.

    “Internal consistencies for the goal disengagement ( α = .86) and goal reengagement scales ( α = .84) were good in the current sample.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data
    § Discussion

    These findings cannot be attributed to mood change or changes in the perceived stressfulness of the social rejection paradigm.

    “Importantly, these findings cannot be attributed to mood change or changes in the perceived stressfulness of the social rejection paradigm, which all study participants experienced prior to completing questionnaires.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § Discussion

    Oxytocin improves self-perceived attachment security and coping style.

    “In support of the latter contention, oxytocin improves self-perceived attachment security (Bucheim et al., 2009) and coping style (Cardoso et al., 2011).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Bucheim et al., 2009

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    • cites Cardoso et al., 2011

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    Premisecitation
    § Discussion

    We have reported effects of oxytocin on cognition that can still be detected at 85115 minutes post-administration.

    “Further, we have reported effects of oxytocin on cognition that can still be detected at 85115 minutes post-administration (Ellenbogen et al., 2012).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Ellenbogen et al., 2012

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    Premisecitation
    § Discussion

    Intranasal oxytocin has been shown to improve altruism only for people perceived to be part of an individual's group, and not for people perceived to be part of an out-group.

    “For example, intranasal oxytocin has been shown to improve altruism only for people perceived to be part of an individual's group, and not for people perceived to be part of an out-group (De Dreu et al., 2010; De Dreu et al., 2011).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites De Dreu et al., 2010 source

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    • cites De Dreu et al., 2011 source

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    Premisecitation
    § Discussion

    Oxytocin did not improve social cooperation when social partners were perceived to be untrustworthy, uncooperative, or antagonistic.

    “Further, oxytocin did not improve social cooperation when social partners were perceived to be untrustworthy (Mikolajczak et al., 2010a), uncooperative (Declerck et al., 2010), or antagonistic (Shamay-Tsoory et al. 2009; but see Baumgartner et al. 2008 for an exception).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Mikolajczak et al., 2010a

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    • cites Declerck et al., 2010 source

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    Premisecitation
    § Discussion

    Most studies examine the effects of oxytocin 45 minutes after administration.

    “While most studies examine the effects of oxytocin 45 minutes after administration (Ditzen et al., 2009; Kosfeld et al., 2005)”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Ditzen et al., 2009 source

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    • cites Kosfeld et al., 2005 source

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    Premisecitation
    § Discussion

    The effect of oxytocin on cooperative behavior depends on characteristics of the individual.

    “Other research suggests that the effect of oxytocin on cooperative behavior depends on characteristics of the individual (Andari et al. 2010; Bartz et al. 2010a; Bartz et al. 2011).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Andari et al. 2010 source

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    • cites Bartz et al. 2010a

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    • cites Bartz et al. 2011

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37 of 37

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The mechanism by which oxytocin influences social behavior is not well understood.

    “The mechanism by which oxytocin influences social behavior is not well understood.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    There are no studies examining oxytocin effects on self-reported personality.

    “Because there are no studies in this area, we included all five factors of the NEO-PI-R in the data analyses.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Past research on intranasal oxytocin has focused primarily on how information in the external world is processed or interpreted.

    “Past research on intranasal oxytocin has focused primarily on how information in the external world is processed or interpreted (i.e. emotional faces, laboratory games, etc.).”
3 of 3

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

Statistics that don’t add up

Each reported p-value recomputed from its test statistic and degrees of freedom.

  • Inconsistent p-value: F (1,98) = 4.910, p = .025

    Minor

    The paper reports p = .025 here; recomputing from the test statistic and its degrees of freedom gives p = .029. The check cannot tell whether the statistic or the p-value is the misprint.

    Reported p = .025 · recomputed p = .029

  • Inconsistent p-value: t (48) = -1.420, p = .242

    Minor

    The paper reports p = .242 here; recomputing from the test statistic and its degrees of freedom gives p = .162 (two-tailed). The check cannot tell whether the statistic or the p-value is the misprint.

    Reported p = .242 · recomputed p = .162

  • Inconsistent p-value: F (4, 93) = 0.040, p = .961

    Minor

    The paper reports p = .961 here; recomputing from the test statistic and its degrees of freedom gives p = .997. The check cannot tell whether the statistic or the p-value is the misprint.

    Reported p = .961 · recomputed p = .997

  • Inconsistent p-value: t (48) = -1.924, p = .063

    Minor

    The paper reports p = .063 here; recomputing from the test statistic and its degrees of freedom gives p = .060 (two-tailed). The check cannot tell whether the statistic or the p-value is the misprint.

    Reported p = .063 · recomputed p = .060

  • Inconsistent p-value: F (4, 93) = 0.270, p = .928

    Minor

    The paper reports p = .928 here; recomputing from the test statistic and its degrees of freedom gives p = .897. The check cannot tell whether the statistic or the p-value is the misprint.

    Reported p = .928 · recomputed p = .897

5 of 5

Statistics recomputed

Every reported test result, recomputed from its test statistic and degrees of freedom. A result shows as not adding up only once an independent check has confirmed it.

  • Doesn’t add upF(1, 98) = 4.91reported p = .025 · recomputed p = .029

    “F (1,98) = 4.910, p = .025”

  • Doesn’t add upF(1, 98) = 4.91reported p = .025 · recomputed p = .029

    “F (1, 98) = 4.910, p = .025”

  • Doesn’t add upF(4, 93) = 0.27reported p = .928 · recomputed p = .897

    “F (4, 93) = 0.270, p = .928”

  • Doesn’t add upF(4, 93) = 0.04reported p = .961 · recomputed p = .997

    “F (4, 93) = 0.040, p = .961”

  • Doesn’t add upt(48) = -1.42reported p = .242 · recomputed p = .162

    “t (48) = -1.420, p = .242”

  • Doesn’t add upt(48) = -1.924reported p = .063 · recomputed p = .060

    “t (48) = -1.924, p = .063”

  • Not confirmedz = -1.041reported p = .297 · recomputed p = .298

    “(z = -1.041, p = .297”

  • ConsistentF(1, 98) = 6.021reported p = .016 · recomputed p = .016

    “F (1,98) = 6.021, p = .016”

  • Consistentt(98) = 0reported p > .05 · recomputed p = 1.000

    “t (98) = 0, p > .05”

  • Consistentt(98) = -0.924reported p > .05 · recomputed p = .358

    “t (98) = -0.924, p > .05”

  • Consistentt(48) = 0.289reported p > .05 · recomputed p = .774

    “t (48) = 0.289, p > .05”

  • Consistentt(48) = 1.23reported p > .05 · recomputed p = .225

    “t (48) = 1.230, p > .05”

  • ConsistentF(5, 92) = 2.146reported p = .067 · recomputed p = .067

    “F (5, 92) = 2.146, p = .067”

  • ConsistentF(5, 92) = 3.383reported p = .008 · recomputed p = .008

    “F (5, 92) = 3.383, p = .008”

  • ConsistentF(5, 92) = 0.27reported p = .928 · recomputed p = .928

    “F (5, 92) = 0.270, p = .928”

  • ConsistentF(1, 98) = 7.032reported p = .009 · recomputed p = .009

    “F (1, 98) = 7.032, p = .009”

  • ConsistentF(1, 98) = 6.021reported p = .016 · recomputed p = .016

    “F (1, 98) = 6.021, p = .016”

  • ConsistentF(1, 98) = 0.381reported p = .539 · recomputed p = .539

    “F (1, 98) = 0.381, p = .539”

  • ConsistentF(1, 98) = 0.397reported p = .53 · recomputed p = .530

    “F (1, 98) = 0.397, p = .530”

  • ConsistentF(1, 98) = 0.001reported p = .981 · recomputed p = .975

    “F (1, 98) = 0.001, p = .981”

  • ConsistentF(5, 41) = 0.342reported p = .884 · recomputed p = .884

    “F (5, 41) = 0.342, p = .884”

  • ConsistentF(5, 41) = 1.28reported p = .291 · recomputed p = .291

    “F (5, 41) = 1.280, p = .291”

  • ConsistentF(1, 96) = 1.135reported p = .289 · recomputed p = .289

    “F (1, 96) = 1.135 , p = .289”

  • ConsistentF(1, 96) = 0.719reported p = .399 · recomputed p = .399

    “F (1,96) = 0.719, p = .399”

  • Consistentz = -0.574reported p = .566 · recomputed p = .566

    “z = -0.574, p = .566”

  • Consistentz = 1.203reported p = .229 · recomputed p = .229

    “(z = 1.203, p = .229”

  • Consistentz = 0.759reported p = .448 · recomputed p = .448

    “z = 0.759, p = .448”

  • Consistentz = -0.171reported p = .864 · recomputed p = .864

    “(z = -0.171, p = .864”

  • Consistentz = 0.305reported p = .76 · recomputed p = .760

    “z = 0.305, p = .760”

  • Consistentz = 0.771reported p = .44 · recomputed p = .441

    “(z = 0.771, p = .440”

  • Consistentz = -0.397reported p = .691 · recomputed p = .691

    “z = -0.397, p = .691”

  • Consistentz = 0.182reported p = .855 · recomputed p = .856

    “(z = 0.182, p = .855”

  • Consistentz = -0.573reported p = .567 · recomputed p = .567

    “z = -0.573, p = .567”

  • Consistentz = 0.022reported p = .983 · recomputed p = .982

    “(z = 0.022, p = .983”

  • Consistentz = 0.141reported p = .888 · recomputed p = .888

    “z = 0.141 , p = .888”

  • Consistentz = -0.249reported p = .803 · recomputed p = .803

    “(z = -0.249, p = .803”

  • Consistentz = -1.306reported p = .191 · recomputed p = .192

    “z = -1.306, p = .191”

  • Consistentz = 0.267reported p = .79 · recomputed p = .789

    “(z = 0.267, p = .790”

  • Consistentz = 0.576reported p = .565 · recomputed p = .565

    “z = 0.576, p = .565”

  • ConsistentF(4, 93) = 0.373reported p = .827 · recomputed p = .827

    “F (4, 93) = 0.373, p = .827”

  • ConsistentF(4, 93) = 2.018reported p = .098 · recomputed p = .098

    “F (4, 93) = 2.018, p = .098”

  • ConsistentF(2, 95) = 0.575reported p = .565 · recomputed p = .565

    “F (2, 95) = 0.575, p = .565”

  • ConsistentF(2, 95) = 0.062reported p = .94 · recomputed p = .940

    “F (2, 95) = 0.062, p = .940”

  • ConsistentF(1, 96) = 4.24reported p = .042 · recomputed p = .042

    “F (1,96) = 4.240, p = .042”

  • ConsistentF(1, 96) = 4.581reported p = .035 · recomputed p = .035

    “F (1,96) = 4.581, p = .035”

  • ConsistentF(1, 96) = 3.072reported p = .083 · recomputed p = .083

    “F (1,96) = 3.072, p = .083”

  • Consistentt(48) = 1.05reported p = .299 · recomputed p = .299

    “t (48) = 1.05, p = .299”

  • Consistentt(48) = 1.185reported p = .242 · recomputed p = .242

    “t (48) = 1.185, p = .242”

  • ConsistentF(1, 96) = 0.265reported p = .608 · recomputed p = .608

    “F (1,96) = 0.265, p = .608”

  • ConsistentF(1, 96) = 0.016reported p = .898 · recomputed p = .900

    “F (1,96) = 0.016, p = .898”

  • ConsistentF(1, 96) = 0.237reported p = .627 · recomputed p = .627

    “F (1,96) = 0.237, p = .627”

  • ConsistentF(1, 96) = 0.098reported p = .754 · recomputed p = .755

    “F (1,96) = 0.098, p = .754”

  • ConsistentF(1, 96) = 0.018reported p = .894 · recomputed p = .894

    “F (1,96) = 0.018, p = .894”

  • ConsistentF(1, 96) = 0.094reported p = .76 · recomputed p = .760

    “F (1,96) = 0.094, p = .760”

  • ConsistentF(1, 96) = 0.173reported p = .678 · recomputed p = .678

    “F (1,96) = 0.173, p = .678”

  • ConsistentF(1, 96) = 0.261reported p = .61 · recomputed p = .611

    “F (1,96) = 0.261, p = .610”

  • ConsistentF(1, 96) = 0.246reported p = .621 · recomputed p = .621

    “F (1,96) = 0.246, p = .621”

57 of 57

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.

  • GAQ interaction has inconsistent MANOVA degrees of freedom

    Minor

    For the same two-subscale GAQ MANOVA, the drug and sex effects are reported with degrees of freedom (2, 95), whereas their interaction is reported with (4, 93). The interaction is still a one-degree-of-freedom contrast across the same two outcomes, so its reported degrees of freedom are inconsistent.

1 of 1

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

1 of the 57 references couldn’t be matched to a known paper.

Research works printed but not linked: 4

  1. Beck AT, Steer RA, Brown GK (1996) Manual for the Beck depression inventory-II. Psychological Corporation, San Antonio
  2. Costa PTJ, McCrae RR (1992) The NEO personality inventory (NEO-PI) and NEO five factor inventory (NEO-FFI) professional manual. Psychological Assessment Resources, Odessa
  3. McNair DM, Lorr M, Droppleman LF (1988) Manual for the profile of mood states. Educational and Industrial Testing Service, San Diego
  4. Sobel ME (1982) Asymptotic intervals for indirect effects in structural equations models. In: Leinhart S (ed) Sociological methodology. Jossey-Bass, San Francisco, pp 290–312

Cited by

Sorted by citations

Related

Authors
Cardoso, C., Ellenbogen, M. A., & Linnen, A.-M.
Affiliations
Concordia University (CA)
Corresponding author
Ellenbogen, Mark A.
ORCID
Ellenbogen, Mark A.
Venue
Psychopharmacology
Publisher
Springer Science and Business Media LLC
Published
2011-10-20
Volume
220
Issue
4
Pages
741-749
ISSN
  • 0033-3158 (ISSN-L)
  • 1432-2072
DOI
10.1007/s00213-011-2527-6
OpenAlex
W2032013018
Semantic Scholar
1f51270cf45c3898196c7e0b806aa784e41277ef
Cited by
98
References
57
Citations by year
2026: 3 · 2025: 2 · 2024: 4 · 2023: 4 · 2022: 1 · 2021: 6 · 2020: 5 · 2019: 5 · 2018: 6 · 2017: 15 · 2016: 5 · 2015: 9 · 2014: 13 · 2013: 11 · 2012: 9
FWCI
14.32
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
closed
Licence
www.springer.com/tdm (tdm)
Locations
  • Psychopharmacology (publishedVersion)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
  • Spectrum Research Repository (Concordia University) (acceptedVersion)
Funders
Canadian Institutes of Health Research
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Neuroendocrine regulation and behavior
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Personality Traits and Psychology
  • Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Sensory Systems › Olfactory and Sensory Function Studies
Keywords
intranasal oxytocin, self-perception, personality traits, extraversion, openness to experience, positive emotions, trust, altruism, prosocial behavior, self-referential processing, social affiliation, placebo effect
MeSH terms
Administration, Intranasal, Adolescent, Adult, Double-Blind Method, Emotions, Female, Humans, Male, Oxytocin, Personality, Surveys and Questionnaires, Self Administration, Self Concept, Time Factors, Young Adult

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-10-09.

Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-10-09.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

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