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Cited by 96Neuroendocrine regulation and behaviorExperimental Behavioral Economics StudiesEvolutionary Game Theory and Cooperation

The effect of oxytocin on cooperation in a prisoner's dilemma depends on the social context and a person's social value orientation

Open access
Declerck, Carolyn H., Boone, Christophe, Kiyonari, Toko·2014·Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience
DOI 10.1093/scan/nst040PMC PMC4040087
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Abstract

The interactionist approach to the study of exogenous oxytocin (OT) effects on prosocial behavior has emphasized the need to consider both contextual cues and individual differences. Therefore, an experiment was set up to examine the joint effect of intranasal OT, a salient social cue and the personality trait social value orientation on cooperative behavior in one-shot prisoner's dilemma games. The outcome of these mixed-motive games is known to be highly dependent on values and on social information that might reveal the partner's intent. Consistent with an a priori hypothesis, OT and social information interact significantly to affect the behavior of individuals with a proself value orientation: after prior contact with the game partner, OT enhances cooperative behavior, whereas in anonymous conditions, it exacerbates their intrinsic self-interested behavior. These effects of OT do not hold for individuals with a prosocial value orientation, whose cooperation levels appear to be more influenced by prior contact with the game partner. Follow-up hypotheses for why prosocial and proself individuals respond differently to exogenous OT were developed.

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

In a double-blind intranasal oxytocin experiment using one-shot prisoner’s dilemma games, oxytocin’s effect on cooperation depended jointly on social value orientation and whether participants had prior contact with their partner. Oxytocin increased cooperation among proselfs after prior contact but decreased it when anonymous, while prosocials showed a different pattern.

Key findings

Prosocials cooperated more overall: 50% vs proselfs 18% (χ² = 51.90, P < 0.001, n = 440 decisions); SVO was the main predictor of cooperation (B = 2.42, P < 0.001).

  • The hypothesized three-way interaction between SVO, OT, and prior contact was significant (B = −4.88, P < 0.002).
  • For proselfs, OT increased cooperation with prior contact (30% vs 14% placebo; χ² = 4.64, P < 0.05, n = 116 decisions) but decreased cooperation in the anonymous condition (11% vs 24% placebo; χ² = 3.94, P < 0.05, n = 132 decisions).
  • For prosocials, OT vs placebo did not differ in the anonymous condition (43% vs 38%; χ² = 2.86, P = 0.59, n = 106 decisions), but with prior contact OT reduced cooperation vs placebo (52% vs 75%; χ² = 4.77, P < 0.05, n = 86 decisions).
  • No significant main effects of OT, prior contact, or game type were found; no two-way interactions were significant, and OT × game was not significant, justifying pooling.

Methods

Double-blind, placebo-controlled experiment with 259 university students (119 male; mean age 20.2, SD 2.4); exclusion criteria included medical/psychiatric illness, pregnancy, substance abuse, smoking >15 cigarettes/day, and medication or alcohol in the past 12 h. Participants received intranasal OT (4 IU per puff, one puff per nostril repeated three times at 5-min intervals; 24 IU total) or placebo and waited 30 min.

  • Social cue was manipulated by prior contact: half the sessions (n = 128) had participants meet seven others, introduce themselves by name and favorite hobby, and shake hands for about 5 min; the anonymous group stayed in the experimental room. SVO was assessed with the 9-item triple dominance decomposed measure; 39 participants (15%) were unclassified and dropped, leaving n = 220 (96 prosocials, 124 proselfs).
  • Participants played one-shot simultaneous PD, sequential PD, and assurance games; only the two PD games were analyzed and pooled into 440 observations (2 decisions × 220 individuals). Cooperation (1/0) was regressed on OT, prior contact, SVO, and controls (order, sex, age, game type) using random-effects logistic regressions for panel data clustered by individual.

Limitations

Stated in the paper: 39 participants (15%) could not be classified by SVO and were dropped, with information loss noted as a drawback; an anxiety-reduction explanation for proselfs’ behavior cannot be ruled out; endogenous OT assessment and its relation to central nervous system functions remain contested; future research is needed on neural pathways, genetics, and endogenous OT.

  • Evident from the text: the sample is university students, decisions are one-shot PD choices, and only two decisions per person are pooled; the prior contact manipulation does not allow exact partner identification; the assurance game was excluded because its payoff structure differs substantially from the PD.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1093/scan/nst040

Cites

79 of 79 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Nothing to recompute.

Claims the paper makes

0 of 74 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged

  • Findingown data

    In the prior context condition, the different cooperation levels between prosocials and proselfs seem to diminish under the influence of oxytocin.

    “Further inspection of the Appendix shows that, in the prior context condition of this study, the different cooperation levels between prosocials and proselfs seem to diminish under the influence of OT.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data

    Cooperation of prosocials increases in the prior contact condition.

    “However, this does not necessarily mean that OT makes prosocials greedier, as the decomposed figure in the Appendix reveals that (i) the level of cooperation of prosocials remains the same (and higher than that of proselfs) in all four OT conditions (even in the seqPD where greed would lead to defect), and (ii) cooperation of prosocials increases in the prior contact condition.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data

    Compared with placebo, oxytocin-exposed proselfs become less cooperative in a prisoner's dilemma when their partner remains completely anonymous.

    “Specifically, the data show that, compared with a placebo, OT-exposed proselfs (who are by nature selfish) become more cooperative in a PD when they had prior contact with their potential game partners, whereas they become even less cooperative when their partner remains completely anonymous.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: In a social dilemma situation, greed is known to affect behavior.
    • Rests on an assumption: Proselfs are by nature selfish.
  • Findingown data

    In the oxytocin condition, the difference between prior contact and anonymous conditions in prosocials' cooperative decisions was not significant (52% vs 43%, χ2 = .70, P = 0.40, n = 92 decisions).

    “In the oxytocin condition, this difference was not significant (52% cooperative decisions in the prior contact condition and 43% in the anonymous condition, 2 ¼ .70,P ¼ 0.40, n ¼ 92 decisions).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: In a social dilemma situation, greed is known to affect behavior.
  • Findingown data

    Compared with placebo, oxytocin decreases cooperation in prosocials in the prior contact condition.

    “An unexpected but particularly interesting finding of this study is that prosocials respond to OT and social cues in the opposite way of proselfs, and that, compared with a placebo, OT appears to decrease cooperation in the prior contact condition.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: In a social dilemma situation, greed is known to affect behavior.
    • Rests on an assumption: Prosocials are naturally cooperative.
  • May combine two claims. 38
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 29

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The effects of OT on cooperation do not hold for individuals with a prosocial value orientation, whose cooperation levels appear to be more influenced by prior contact with the game partner.

    “These effects of OT do not hold for individuals with a prosocial value orientation, whose cooperation levels appear to be more influenced by prior contact with the game partner.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The prior contact manipulation does not allow exact identification of the partner, which prevents possible retaliation or reputation effects.
    • The authors state this as an assumption: The two decisions from the same individual cannot be assumed to be independent.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    OT and social information interact significantly to affect the behavior of individuals with a proself value orientation: after prior contact with the game partner, OT enhances cooperative behavior, whereas in anonymous conditions, it exacerbates their intrinsic self-interested behavior.

    “Consistent with an a priori hypothesis, OT and social information interact significantly to affect the behavior of individuals with a proself value orientation: after prior contact with the game partner, OT enhances cooperative behavior, whereas in anonymous conditions, it exacerbates their intrinsic self-interested behavior.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The prior contact manipulation does not allow exact identification of the partner, which prevents possible retaliation or reputation effects.
    • The authors state this as an assumption: The two decisions from the same individual cannot be assumed to be independent.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Sex has neither a main effect on cooperation nor interacts with OT, SVO, or prior contact.

    “Sex has neither a main effect on cooperation (see Table 1, Model 1; B ¼ À0.52, P ¼ 0.18), nor does it interact with OT (B ¼ 0.42, P ¼ 0.58, n ¼ 440 decisions), with SVO (B ¼ 0.59, P ¼ 0.45, n ¼ 440 decisions) or with prior contact (B ¼ À0.1.42,P ¼ 0.075, n ¼ 440 decisions).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • The authors state this as an assumption: The two decisions from the same individual cannot be assumed to be independent.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Neither the type of game, nor prior contact, nor OT has a significant main effect on cooperation.

    “Model 1 shows that neither the type of game, nor prior contact, nor OT has a significant main effect on cooperation.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • The authors state this as an assumption: The two decisions from the same individual cannot be assumed to be independent.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    For prosocials, prior contact by itself suffices to increase cooperation in the placebo condition; prior contact in combination with OT reduces cooperation back to baseline.

    “For prosocials, prior contact by itself suffices to increase the level of cooperation in the placebo condition.But, unexpectedly, prior contact in combination with OT reduces their cooperation level back to baseline.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The prior contact manipulation does not allow exact identification of the partner, which prevents possible retaliation or reputation effects.
    • The authors state this as an assumption: The two decisions from the same individual cannot be assumed to be independent.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingreasoning

    The three-way interaction between oxytocin, prior contact and social value orientation reported here is specific to the prisoner's dilemma and is not replicated in an assurance game.

    “The three-way interaction between OT, prior contact and SVO reported here is specific to the PD and is not replicated in an assurance game.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: In a social dilemma situation, greed is known to affect behavior.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    In the placebo condition, prosocials decided 75% on the cooperative decision with prior contact, and only 38% in the anonymous condition, and this difference is significant (χ2 = 12.95, P < 0.001, n = 100 decisions).

    “In the placebo condition, prosocials decided 75% on the cooperative decision with prior contact, and only 38% in the anonymous condition, and this difference is significant ( 2 ¼ 12.95, P < 0.001, n ¼ 100 decisions).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: In a social dilemma situation, greed is known to affect behavior.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The level of cooperation of prosocials remains the same (and higher than that of proselfs) in all four oxytocin conditions, even in the sequential prisoner's dilemma where greed would lead to defect.

    “However, this does not necessarily mean that OT makes prosocials greedier, as the decomposed figure in the Appendix reveals that (i) the level of cooperation of prosocials remains the same (and higher than that of proselfs) in all four OT conditions (even in the seqPD where greed would lead to defect), and (ii) cooperation of prosocials increases in the prior contact condition.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Bartz et al. (2011a) review reveals that both environmental context and/or individual differences significantly influence how OT affects behavior, so that OT often has a moderating rather than a direct effect on prosociality.

    “Their review reveals that both the environmental context and/ or individual differences significantly influence how OT affects behavior, so that, more often than not, OT has a moderating (rather than a direct) effect on prosociality.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Bartz et al. (2011a)

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    Exogenous OT increases trusting behavior in an economic game.

    “exogenous OT increases trusting behavior in an economic game (Kosfeld et al., 2005)”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Kosfeld et al., 2005 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Plasma levels of OT vary with autism spectrum disorder, parenting styles, and major depression.

    “For example, plasma levels of OT appear to vary with autism spectrum disorder (Modahl et al., 1998), parenting styles (Feldman et al., 2007;Gordon et al., 2010) and major depression (Parker et al., 2010).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Modahl et al., 1998 source

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    • cites Feldman et al., 2007;Gordon et al., 2010

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Parker et al., 2010 source

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  • May combine two claims.

    Premisereasoning

    Contextual factors that are congruent with this motivation increase prosocial behavior, whereas contextual factors that work against the goal decrease prosocial behavior.

    “Contextual factors that are congruent with this motivation increase prosocial behavior, whereas contextual factors that work against the goal should decrease prosocial behavior”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Declerck et al., 2010 source

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    • cites De Dreu et al., 2010

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    • cites Mikolajczac et al., 2010

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  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    OT facilitates cooperation with in-group members but hinders cooperation with out-group members.

    “It facilitates cooperation with in-group members but at the same time hinders cooperation with out-group members (De Dreu et al., 2010, 2011).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites De Dreu et al., 2010, 2011

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    OT enhances coordination on the cooperative outcome in an assurance game, but this effect depends on prior contact with game partners; in anonymous interactions, OT causes players to be more risk-averse.

    “Finally, OT appears to enhance coordination on the cooperative outcome in an assurance game, but this effect is dependent on participants having had prior contact with their game partners.If the interactions proceed completely anonymously, OT caused players to be more risk-averse (Declerck et al., 2010).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Declerck et al., 2010 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Enhanced prosocial effects of intranasally administered OT are especially pronounced for individuals with socio-emotional deficits, such as Asperger syndrome or high alexithymia.

    “It appears that the enhanced prosocial effects of intranasally administered OT are especially pronounced for individuals suffering from socio-emotional deficits, as is the case for individuals with Asperger syndrome (Andari et al., 2010) or high alexithymia (Luminet et al., 2011).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Andari et al., 2010 source

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    • cites Luminet et al., 2011 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    OT increases the perceptual sensitivity to social cues, which affects downstream cognition and behavior that is dependent on interpreting these cues.

    “These authors additionally suggest that OT increases the perceptual sensitivity to social cues, which affects downstream cognition and behavior that is dependent on interpreting these cues.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Bartz et al. (2011a)

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductreasoning

    Pooling the data of the simPD and the seqPD increases statistical power and external validity.

    “To increase statistical power and external validity, we pooled the data of the simPD and the seqPD.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Exogenous oxytocin makes prosocials less sensitive to context.

    “The latter finding suggests that exogenous OT would make prosocials less sensitive to context, which seems to contradict OT's presumed role of increasing the saliency of social cues reported earlier (e.g., Declerck et al., 2010).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Declerck et al., 2010 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • Rests on an assumption: Prosocials are naturally cooperative.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The prior contact manipulation significantly increases game players' expectation of reciprocity and overall cooperation in repeated public good games, and may serve as a trust signal.

    “Previous research has shown that this prior contact manipulation significantly increases game players' expectation of reciprocity, as well as overall cooperation levels in repeated public good games.This research also suggests that prior contact may serve as a trust signal, as players also showed more trusting behavior by investing more in a trust game (Boone et al., 2008).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Boone et al., 2008 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    OT suppresses activity in one region of the amygdala in response to fearful faces (lowering anxiety), but enhances activity for happy faces in another part of the amygdala.

    “Indeed, OT appears to suppress activity in one region of the amygdala in response to fearful faces (lowering anxiety), but OT can also enhance activity for happy faces in another part of the amygdala (Gamer et al., 2010).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Gamer et al., 2010

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  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductreasoning

    Analyzing two decisions per individual in panel data form accounts for within-subject variability.

    “Second, by analyzing two decisions per individual in panel data form, we also account for within-subject variability.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • The authors state this as an assumption: The two decisions from the same individual cannot be assumed to be independent.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Interpretationreasoning

    To avoid extreme gullibility of naturally cooperative prosocials, oxytocin might cause them to be more cautious, even to ignore social cues.

    “To avoid extreme gullibility of naturally cooperative prosocials, OT might cause them to be more cautious, even to ignore social cues.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Prosocials are naturally cooperative.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    OT can positively influence prosocial behavior by linking approach behavior to the capacity to experience reward from social interaction.

    “it has been suggested that OT can positively influence prosocial behavior by linking approach behavior to the capacity to experience reward from social interaction (Insel, 2003;Campbell, 2008).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Insel, 2003 source

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    • cites Campbell, 2008 source

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  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Choice behavior in a social dilemma is influenced by individual values and motivation and by social cues that decrease anonymity, reduce social distance, or prime trust.

    “Choice behavior in a social dilemma is not only highly influenced by individual values and motivation (Kollock, 1998;Camerer and Fehr, 2006;Fehr and Gintis, 2007) but also by social cues that decrease anonymity, reduce social distance or prime people to trust their partner (e.g., Hoffman et al., 1996;Bohnet and Frey, 1999;Burnham et al., 2000;Burnham, 2003).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Kollock, 1998 source

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    • cites Camerer and Fehr, 2006

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    • cites Fehr and Gintis, 2007

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  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductown data

    The study used a double-blind procedure for administration of OT or placebo.

    “Using a double-blind procedure, each participant received a nasal spray containing either OT (four IU per puff) or a placebo (containing only the carrier and no active ingredients).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    OT increases the accuracy of people's perceptual judgments of others' emotions and intentions, improves recognition memory, and stimulates eye contact.

    “It increases the accuracy of people's perceptual judgments of others' emotions and intentions (Domes et al., 2007), improves recognition memory (Savaskan et al., 2008) and stimulates eye contact (Guastella et al., 2008).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Domes et al., 2007 source

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    • cites Savaskan et al., 2008 source

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    • cites Guastella et al., 2008 source

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    In children diagnosed with autism spectrum disorder, plasma OT administration tends to improve social information processing and increases the number of self-initiated social interactions.

    “In children diagnosed with autism spectrum disorder, plasma OT administration tends to improve social information processing and increases the number of self-initiated social interactions (Hollander et al., 2007).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Hollander et al., 2007 source

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  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    Exogenous oxytocin increases both the perceptual sensitivity to social cues and the social motivation of otherwise greedy proselfs.

    “These results corroborate the a priori hypothesis that exogenous OT increases both the perceptual sensitivity to social cues and the social motivation of otherwise greedy proselfs.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Proselfs are by nature selfish.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    OT is a neuromodulator with both excitatory and inhibitory effects in neurons of the central amygdala, suggesting that the behavioral effect of OT can go both ways.

    “the finding that, at the cellular level, OT is a neuromodulator with both excitatory and inhibitory effects in neurons of the central amygdala (Huber et al., 2005) suggests that the behavioral effect of OT can go both ways.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Huber et al., 2005 source

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    OT regulates bonding as well as selective aggression in pair-bonded prairie voles and lactating rats.

    “OT regulates bonding as well as selective aggression in pair-bonded prairie voles (Young et al., 2008) and in lactating rats (Leng et al., 2008).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Young et al., 2008

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    • cites Leng et al., 2008 source

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    Study design and conductcitation

    The 9-item decomposed SVO measure has adequate reliability and validity in previous research.

    “The reliability and validity of the 9-item decomposed measure has proven to be adequate in previous research and is reviewed elsewhere (Au and Kwong, 2004;Bogaert et al., 2008).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Au and Kwong, 2004

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    • cites Bogaert et al., 2008 source

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  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    For proselfs, prior contact is essential for exogenous OT to boost cooperation; in its absence, OT significantly decreases cooperation.

    “For proselfs, prior contact is essential for exogenous OT to boost cooperation, whereas in its absence, OT significantly decreases cooperation (see the significant three-way interaction in Table 1, Model 3).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The prior contact manipulation does not allow exact identification of the partner, which prevents possible retaliation or reputation effects.
    • The authors state this as an assumption: The two decisions from the same individual cannot be assumed to be independent.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisereasoning

    In the sequential prisoner's dilemma, there is no possibility of betrayal and hence no reason to be anxious when cooperating.

    “First, in the seqPD, there is no possibility of betrayal and hence no reason to be anxious when cooperating.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Proselfs do not enjoy a mutual cooperative outcome as much as prosocials do, making them 'cold' in their rapport with others.

    “Proselfs do not enjoy a mutual cooperative outcome as much as prosocials do (Simpson, 2004), making them 'cold' in their rapport with others.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Simpson, 2004 source

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Oxytocin is known to stimulate dopamine release in the nucleus accumbens, by which it may directly improve approach motivation.

    “On the one hand, OT is known to stimulate dopamine release in the nucleus accumbens, by which it may directly improve approach motivation (Depue and Morrone-Strupinsky, 2005;Skuse and Gallagher, 2008).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Depue and Morrone-Strupinsky, 2005 source

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    • cites Skuse and Gallagher, 2008 source

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    A number of single-nucleotide polymorphisms have been associated with differences in prosociality.

    “A number of single-nucleotide polymorphisms have been associated with differences in prosociality (Bakermans-Kranenburg & Van Ijzendoorn, 2008, Rodrigues et al., 2009;Riem et al.,2010;Tost et al., 2010).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Bakermans-Kranenburg & Van Ijzendoorn, 2008

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    • cites Rodrigues et al., 2009 source

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    • cites Riem et al., 2010

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Oxytocin reduces social anxiety by attenuating the amygdala response to fearful social signals.

    “On the other hand, there are several reports that OT reduces social anxiety by attenuating the amygdala response to fearful social signals (Kirsch et al., 2005;Baumgartner et al., 2008).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Kirsch et al., 2005 source

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    • cites Baumgartner et al., 2008 source

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Prosocials might be more sensitive to oxytocin's effect on the amygdala-hypothalamus stress axis, and find relief in oxytocin's stress-reducing actions.

    “Prosocials on the other hand might be more sensitive to OT's effect on the amygdala-hypothalamus stress axis, and find relief in OT's stress-reducing actions.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Stable individual differences in prosocial tendencies have a genetic root and correspond to polymorphisms in the oxytocin receptor (OXTR) gene.

    “Already there are many indications that stable individual differences in prosocial tendencies have a genetic root and that they correspond to polymorphisms in the oxytocin receptor (OXTR) gene.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Bakermans-Kranenburg & Van Ijzendoorn, 2008

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    • cites Rodrigues et al., 2009 source

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    • cites Riem et al., 2010

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    High oxytocin levels in conjunction with positive affiliative contact may serve to motivate approach behavior to seek new friendships and reinstate normal social functioning after conflicts.

    “For example, there are some reports that in women, peripheral OT reactivity serves as a marker of relational distress (Tabak et al., 2011), and it has been suggested that these high OT levels in conjunction with positive affiliative contact may serve to motivate approach behavior to seek new friendships and reinstate normal social functioning after conflicts (Bartz and Hollander, 2006;Taylor, 2006”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Bartz and Hollander, 2006 source

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    • cites Taylor, 2006 source

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    Premisecitation

    Participants in a trust game tend to discount feedback information regarding their partner's unreciprocal behavior more so when they are given intranasal oxytocin compared with a placebo.

    “An earlier study by Baumgartner et al. (2008) reported that participants in a trust game tend to discount feedback information regarding their partner's unreciprocal behavior more so when they are given intranasal OT compared with a placebo.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Baumgartner et al. (2008) source

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S1 (asserted), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    If oxytocin modulates how particular individuals deal with social anxiety, then the more betrayal-averse prosocials might be more sensitive to oxytocin in situations that elicit anxiousness.

    “If OT modulates how particular individuals deal with social anxiety, then the more betrayal-averse prosocials might be more sensitive to OT in situations that elicit anxiousness (such as the simPD, see Appendix).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    The social value orientation construct itself has been characterized by a specific haplotype of the OXTR gene.

    “The SVO construct itself has been characterized by a specific haplotype of the OXTR gene (Israel et al., 2009).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Israel et al., 2009 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    In women, peripheral oxytocin reactivity serves as a marker of relational distress.

    “For example, there are some reports that in women, peripheral OT reactivity serves as a marker of relational distress (Tabak et al., 2011), and it has been suggested that these high OT levels in conjunction with positive affiliative contact may serve to motivate approach behavior to seek new friendships and reinstate normal social functioning after conflicts (Bartz and Hollander, 2006;Taylor, 2006”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Tabak et al., 2011 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationreasoning

    If the interpretations of the data set forth in this article are correct, proselfs would be more sensitive than prosocials when it comes to oxytocin's actions on brain regions involved in social approach motivation, such as the nucleus accumbens and the subgenual area.

    “If the interpretations of the data set forth in this article are correct, proselfs would be more sensitive than prosocials when it comes to OT's actions on brain regions involved in social approach motivation, such as the nucleus accumbens and the subgenual area.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    This effect occurred after several positive interactions in a trust game, a condition that has previously been shown to boost endogenous oxytocin.

    “This effect occurred after several positive interactions in a trust game, a condition that has previously been shown to boost endogenous OT (Zak et al., 2004).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Zak et al., 2004 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    In the presence of an out-group, oxytocin facilitated cooperation in the in-group, and this effect was similar for prosocials and proselfs.

    “These authors report that in the presence of an out-group, OT facilitated cooperation in the in-group, and this effect was similar for prosocials and proselfs.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites De Dreu et al., 2010

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The relation between anxiety, betrayal aversion and oxytocin has proven to be complex and may further depend on attachment styles.

    “The relation between anxiety, betrayal aversion and OT has proven to be complex and may further depend on attachment styles(Baltz, 2012).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Baltz, 2012

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    Knowing that each player's contribution becomes critical to win the competition incentivizes rational players to cooperate in the intergroup prisoner's dilemma, and these extrinsic incentives should hold for proselfs and prosocials alike.

    “Knowing that each player's contribution becomes critical to win the competition incentivizes rational players to cooperate in the IPD (reviewed in Bornstein 2003), and these extrinsic incentives should hold for proselfs and prosocials alike.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Bornstein 2003 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The accruing benefits during repeated interactions make mutual cooperation much more attractive in the long run and are therefore a great incentive to cooperate.

    “The accruing benefits during repeated interactions make mutual cooperation much more attractive in the long run and are therefore a great incentive to cooperate, as has been documented in the literature many times before (e.g., Boone et al., 1999).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Boone et al., 1999 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

    Interpretationown data

    These results point at the importance of considering extrinsically motivating factors in the environment when investigating the prosocial influences of oxytocin.

    “First, these results point at the importance of considering extrinsically motivating factors in the environment when investigating the prosocial influences of OT.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    At least three single-nucleotide polymorphisms and one four-locus haplotype appear to be significant predictors of the prosocial-proself dichotomy.

    “At least three single-nucleotide polymorphisms and one four-locus haplotype appear to be significant predictors of the prosocial-proself dichotomy.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Currently, endogenous oxytocin assessment methods and interpretations of the relation between plasma oxytocin levels and corresponding central nervous system functions are still contested.

    “Currently, endogenous OT assessment methods (Szeto et al., 2011) and interpretations of the relation between plasma OT levels and corresponding central nervous system functions are still contested (Meyer-Lindenberg et al., 2011;Churchland and Winkielman, 2012).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Szeto et al., 2011 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Meyer-Lindenberg et al., 2011 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Churchland and Winkielman, 2012

      Not checked in the free run.

53 of 53

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The prior contact manipulation does not allow exact identification of the partner, which prevents possible retaliation or reputation effects.

    “Note that this prior contact manipulation does not allow exact identification of the partner, which prevents possible retaliation or reputation effects.”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    The two decisions from the same individual cannot be assumed to be independent.

    “However, as both decisions cannot be assumed to be independent, we test the effect of our variables by means of logistic regressions for panel data (STATA 9, xtlogit command).”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    In a social dilemma situation, greed is known to affect behavior.

    “at least in a social dilemma situation where greed is known to affect behavior”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Proselfs are by nature selfish.

    “OT-exposed proselfs (who are by nature selfish)”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Prosocials are naturally cooperative.

    “naturally cooperative prosocials”
5 of 5

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

  • For a subset of human subjects with greater prosocial as opposed to selfish tendencies, cooperative choices in a one-shot prisoner's dilemma game were more positively influenced by brief prior contact with their game partner than by 24 IU of intranasal oxytocin.

    “Indeed, Declerck et al. (2013) have shown that for a subset of human subjects with greater prosocial as opposed to selfish tendencies, cooperative choices in a one-shot prisoner's dilemma game were more positively influenced by brief prior contact with their game partner than by 24 IU of intranasal oxytocin.”

    From Endogenous peripheral oxytocin measures can give insight into the dynamics of social relationships: a review (2014) · cites this paper as Declerck et al., 2013

  • People care about both themselves and others' interests, but with considerable individual variation in how they weigh equity of self-other gain and cooperation with others.

    “Recent studies of social decision-making find that people are rarely purely self-centered or altruistic: they care about both themselves and others' interests, but with considerable individual variation in how they weigh equity of self-other gain 3 and cooperation with others 3,4 during their decision-making.”

    From Oxytocin modulates social value representations in the amygdala (2019) · cites this paper as [4]

  • In humans, intranasal oxytocin produces stronger effects on cooperation in less socially proficient individuals.

    “In humans, it has been suggested that individual differences in oxytocin effects are adaptive depending on an individual's social disposition 21 such that intranasal oxytocin produces stronger effects on cooperation in less socially proficient individuals 4 .”

    From Oxytocin modulates social value representations in the amygdala (2019) · cites this paper as [4]

  • Individualists focus on self-interest and personal goals when making decisions.

    “While individualists focus on self-interest and personal goals when making decisions 3,4 , oxytocin may increase prosociality by shifting reference-points to more prosocial allocations and increasing the weights of outcomes for others, possibly through amplifying the amygdala representation of social value distance.”

    From Oxytocin modulates social value representations in the amygdala (2019) · cites this paper as [4]

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.

  • Three-way interaction assigned to the wrong model

    Minor

    The text places the significant three-way interaction in Table 1, Model 3, but the table reports it only in Model 4.

1 of 1

Cites

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1 of the 80 references couldn’t be matched to a known paper.

Cited by

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Related

Authors
Declerck, C. H., Boone, C., & Kiyonari, T.
Affiliations
Aoyama Gakuin University (JP)
ORCID
Venue
Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience
Publisher
Oxford University Press (OUP)
Published
2013-06-17
Volume
9
Issue
6
Pages
802-809
ISSN
  • 1749-5016 (ISSN-L)
  • 1749-5024
DOI
10.1093/scan/nst040
PMC
PMC4040087
OpenAlex
W2096976512
Cited by
96
References
80
Citations by year
2026: 2 · 2025: 2 · 2024: 3 · 2023: 3 · 2022: 3 · 2021: 3 · 2020: 28 · 2019: 4 · 2018: 7 · 2017: 13 · 2016: 5 · 2015: 12 · 2014: 8 · 2013: 3
FWCI
14.01
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
  • Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc)
  • Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion)
  • PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
Funders
  • Universiteit Antwerpen
  • Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (22683014)
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Neuroendocrine regulation and behavior
  • Social Sciences › Safety Research › Experimental Behavioral Economics Studies
  • Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Evolutionary Game Theory and Cooperation
Keywords
oxytocin, cooperation, prisoner's dilemma, social value orientation, prosocial behavior, social cues, individual differences, intranasal administration, prosocial personality
MeSH terms
Administration, Intranasal, Cooperative Behavior, Cues, Female, Game Theory, Humans, Interpersonal Relations, Male, Models, Psychological, Oxytocin, Personality, Psychological Tests, Psychotropic Drugs, Logistic Models, Young Adult

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Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-10-09.

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