The Cardiac Anxiety Questionnaire: development and preliminary validity

Eifert, Georg H; Thompson, Risa N; Zvolensky, Michael J; Edwards, Kimberly; Frazer, Nicole L; Haddad, John W; Davig, James

doi:10.1016/s0005-7967(99)00132-1

Cited by 349Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive ProcessesCardiac Health and Mental HealthPsychosomatic Disorders and Their Treatments

The Cardiac Anxiety Questionnaire: development and preliminary validity

Eifert, Georg H, Thompson, Risa N, Zvolensky, Michael J, Edwards, Kimberly, Frazer, Nicole L, Haddad, John W, Davig, James·2000·Behaviour Research and Therapy

DOI 10.1016/s0005-7967(99)00132-1

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Abstract

Heart-focused anxiety (HFA) is the fear of cardiac-related stimuli and sensations because of their perceived negative consequences. Although HFA is common to a wide variety of persons who experience chest pain and distress, it often is unrecognized and misdiagnosed, particularly in cardiology and emergency room patients without and with heart disease. To address these concerns, this article reports on the development and preliminary psychometric evaluation of the Cardiac Anxiety Questionnaire (CAQ) designed to measure HFA. In Study 1, 188 cardiology patients completed the CAQ. Item and factor analyses indicated a three-factor solution pertaining to heart-related fear, avoidance, and attention. Reliability analysis of the 18-item CAQ revealed good internal consistency of the total and subscale scores. In Study 2, 42 patients completed the CAQ and several other anxiety-related questionnaires to assess its convergent and divergent properties. Although preliminary validity results are promising, further psychometric study is necessary to cross-validate the CAQ, examine its test-retest reliability, and confirm the stability of the factor structure. Taken together, the CAQ appears to assess HFA, and may therefore be a useful instrument for identifying patients with elevated HFA without and with heart disease.

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“CAQ has shown reliability and validity among cardiac patients [25].”
From Internet-based cognitive behavioral therapy for symptoms of depression and anxiety among patients with a recent myocardial infarction: The u-care heart randomized Controlled trial (2018) · cites this paper as [25]
CAQ measures heart-focused anxiety.
“The CAQ measures heart-focused anxiety, as this may be a more specific form of anxiety relevant to heart patients (Eifert et al., 2000;van Beek et al., 2012).”
From Postponement of elective cardiac surgery: A prospective observational analysis of anxiety, depression, social support and clinical complications. (2023) · cites this paper as Eifert et al., 2000

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Autogenic training to manage symptomology in women with chest pain and normal coronary arteries
Asbury, E., Kanji, N., Ernst, E., Barbir, M., & Collins, P. D. (2009) · Menopause The Journal of The North American Menopause Society · doi:10.1097/gme.0b013e318184762e · Cited by 56 · see citing works
Enhancing the efficacy of heart surgery by optimizing patients' preoperative expectations: Study protocol of a randomized controlled trial
Laferton, J. A. C., Mora, M. C. S., Auer, C. J., Moosdorf, R., & Rief, W. (2012) · American Heart Journal · doi:10.1016/j.ahj.2012.10.007 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
Differential Fear of Cardiopulmonary Sensations in Emergency Room Noncardiac Chest Pain Patients
Aikens, J., Zvolensky, M. J., & Eifert, G. (2001) · Journal of behavioral medicine · doi:10.1023/a:1010710614626 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
Self-citation
A Randomized Controlled Trial of Secondary Prevention of Anxiety and Distress in a German Sample of Patients With an Implantable Cardioverter Defibrillator
Crössmann, A., Schulz, S. M., Kühlkamp, V., Ritter, O., Neuser, H., Schumacher, B., Bauer, W., & Pauli, P. (2010) · Psychosomatic Medicine · doi:10.1097/psy.0b013e3181d9bcec · Cited by 61 · see citing works
“The subscale CAQ-Avoidance is best supported in the German version, but all subscales offer good reliability and convergent validity (49,50).”
Background
Association between heart-focused anxiety, depressive symptoms, health behaviors and healthcare utilization in patients with coronary heart disease.
Hohls, J. K., Beer, K., Arolt, V., Haverkamp, W., Kuhlmann, S., Martus, P., Waltenberger, J., Rieckmann, N., Müller-Nordhorn, J., & Ströhle, A. (2020) · Journal of Psychosomatic Research · doi:10.1016/j.jpsychores.2020.109958 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
Cardiac anxiety in people with and without coronary atherosclerosis
Marker, C. D., Carmin, C. N., & Ownby, R. L. (2007) · Depression and Anxiety · doi:10.1002/da.20348 · Cited by 53 · see citing works
“The measure has been found to be useful in clinical research with medical patients [Aikens et al., 1999a,b; Zvolensky et al., 2003] and as a cognitivebehavior therapy outcome measure [Eifert et al., 2000b].”
BackgroundMethodInfluential
Predictors of Self-Reported Anxiety and Panic Symptoms: An Evaluation of Anxiety Sensitivity, Suffocation Fear, Heart-Focused Anxiety, and Breath-Holding Duration
Eifert, G. H., Zvolensky, M. J., Sorrell, J. T., Hopko, D. R., & Lejuez, C. W. (1999) · Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment · doi:10.1023/a:1022116731279 · Cited by 53 · see citing works
“The CAQ is internally consistent (a coefficient: .83) and has demonstrated evidence of convergent and divergent validity [see Eifert et al. (1999b) for a more detailed description of the psychometric properties of the CAQ].”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialSelf-citation
Cardiac anxiety after sudden cardiac arrest: Severity, predictors and clinical implications
Rosman, L., Whited, A., Lampert, R., Mosesso, V. N., Lawless, C., & Sears, S. F. (2015) · International Journal of Cardiology · doi:10.1016/j.ijcard.2014.11.115 · Cited by 52 · see citing works
“The CAQ is a previously validated, 18-item self-report measure with three subscales (cardiac fear, avoidance, and heart-focused attention), designed to assess cardiacspecific anxiety [6].”
BackgroundMethodInfluential
Heart-focused anxiety and chest pain: A conceptual and clinical review.
Eifert, G. H., Zvolensky, M. J., & Lejuez, C. W. (2000) · Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice · doi:10.1093/clipsy.7.4.403 · Cited by 90 · see citing works
Self-citation
Heart-focused anxiety in the general population
Fischer, D., Kindermann, I., Karbach, J., Herzberg, P., Ukena, C., Barth, C., Lenski, M., Mahfoud, F., Einsle, F., Dannemann, S., et al. (2012) · Clinical Research in Cardiology · doi:10.1007/s00392-011-0371-7 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
“The CAQ can be considered as a standardized instrument for the assessment of HFA [2, 10].”
BackgroundMethodInfluential
Post–Myocardial Infarction Psychological Distress: A Scientific Statement From the American Heart Association
Levine, G. N., Carney, R. M., Cohen, B. E., Dunn, S. L., Gaffey, A. E., Kronish, I. M., Olsson, E. M. G., & Huffman, J. C. (2025) · Circulation · doi:10.1161/cir.0000000000001381 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
The impact of illness perceptions and disease severity on quality of life in congenital heart disease
O'Donovan, C., Painter, L., Lowe, B., Robinson, H., & Broadbent, E. (2015) · Cardiology in the Young · doi:10.1017/s1047951114002728 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
Guided Internet-delivered cognitive behavioural therapy in patients with non-cardiac chest pain – a pilot randomized controlled study
Mourad, G., Strömberg, A., Jonsbu, E., Gustafsson, M., Johansson, P., & Jaarsma, T. (2016) · Trials · doi:10.1186/s13063-016-1491-1 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
“The Cardiac Anxiety Questionnaire has demonstrated good psychometric properties [43].”
Background
Patient-reported outcomes predict return to work and health-related quality of life six months after cardiac rehabilitation: Results from a German multi-centre registry (OutCaRe)
Salzwedel, A., Koran, I., Langheim, E., Schlitt, A., Nothroff, J., Bongarth, C., Wrenger, M., Sehner, S., Reibis, R. K., Wegscheider, K., et al. (2020) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0232752 · Cited by 49 · see citing works
Neck-focused panic attacks among Cambodian refugees; a logistic and linear regression analysis
Hinton, D. E., Chhean, D., Pich, V., Um, K., Fama, J. M., & Pollack, M. H. (2005) · Journal of Anxiety Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.janxdis.2005.02.001 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
“(Analogously, Eifert and his group, e.g., Eifert, 1992; Eifert et al., 2000, have demonstrated the importance of heartfocused anxiety in English- and German speaking populations.”
Background
Efficacy of internet-delivered cognitive behavioural therapy following an acute coronary event: A randomized controlled trial
Schneider, L. H., Hadjistavropoulos, H. D., Dear, B. F., & Titov, N. (2020) · Internet Interventions · doi:10.1016/j.invent.2020.100324 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
Measures for Anxiety and Related Constructs
Roemer, L. (2006) · Kluwer Academic Publishers eBooks · doi:10.1007/0-306-47628-2_8 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
“The CAQ is an 18-item self-report measure recently developed to assess heart-focused anxiety among individuals with and without heart disease ( Eifert et al., 2000 ).”
Method
A brief cognitive-behavioral intervention for patients with noncardiac chest pain
Esler, J. L., Barlow, D. H., Woolard, R. H., Nicholson, R. A., Nash, J. M., & Erogul, M. (2003) · Behavior Therapy · doi:10.1016/s0005-7894(03)80009-6 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
Internet-Based Cognitive Behavioral Therapy for Patients Reporting Symptoms of Anxiety and Depression After Myocardial Infarction: U-CARE Heart Randomized Controlled Trial Twelve-Month Follow-up
Humphries, S., Wallert, J., Norlund, F., Wallin, E., Burell, G. K., von Essén, L., Held, C., & Olsson, E. M. G. (2021) · Journal of Medical Internet Research · doi:10.2196/25465 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
“Since so few participants adhered to the treatment, however, we cannot conclude that this was the reason for better CAQ scores.”
MethodInfluential
A New CBT Model of Panic Attack Treatment in Comorbid Heart Diseases (PATCHD): How to Calm an Anxious Heart and Mind
Tully, P. J., Sardinha, A., & Nardi, A. E. (2016) · Cognitive and Behavioral Practice · doi:10.1016/j.cbpra.2016.05.008 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
Positive effect on patient experience of video information given prior to cardiovascular magnetic resonance imaging: A clinical trial
Ahlander, B., Engvall, J. E., Maret, E., & Ericsson, E. (2017) · Journal of Clinical Nursing · doi:10.1111/jocn.14172 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
12-month prevalence of panic disorder with or without agoraphobia in the Swedish general population
Carlbring, P., Gustafsson, H., Ekselius, L., & Andersson, G. (2002) · Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology · doi:10.1007/s00127-002-0542-y · Cited by 42 · see citing works
The Cardiac Anxiety Questionnaire: Cross-Validation among Cardiac Inpatients
Van Beek, M. H. C. T., Voshaar, R. C. O., Van Deelen, F. M., Van Balkom, A. J. L. M., Pop, G., & Speckens, A. E. M. (2012) · The International Journal of Psychiatry in Medicine · doi:10.2190/pm.43.4.e · Cited by 41 · see citing works
“Heart-focused anxiety was defined as “the fear of cardiac-related stimuli and sensations because of their perceived negative consequences” [11].”
BackgroundMethodInfluential
Depressive Symptoms, Cardiac Anxiety, and Fear of Body Sensations in Patients with Non-Cardiac Chest Pain, and Their Relation to Healthcare-Seeking Behavior: A Cross-Sectional Study
Mourad, G., Strömberg, A., Johansson, P., & Jaarsma, T. (2015) · Patient · doi:10.1007/s40271-015-0125-0 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
“69 for heartfocused attention [27].”
Predictors of Heart‐Focused Anxiety in Patients Undergoing Genetic Investigation and Counseling of Long QT Syndrome or Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy: A One Year Follow‐up
Hamang, A., Eide, G. E., Rokne, B., Nordin, K., Bjorvatn, C., & Øyen, N. (2011) · Journal of Genetic Counseling · doi:10.1007/s10897-011-9393-6 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
Audio‐visual relaxation training for anxiety, sleep, and relaxation among Chinese adults with cardiac disease
Tsai, S. (2004) · Research in Nursing & Health · doi:10.1002/nur.20039 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
Cardiophobia: A Critical Analysis
Zvolensky, M. J., Feldner, M. T., Eifert, G. H., Vujanovic, A. A., & Solomon, S. E. (2008) · Transcultural Psychiatry · doi:10.1177/1363461508089766 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
Self-citation
Fear of movement and its associated psychosocial factors in heart failure patients: a cross-sectional study
Zhang, X., Zhao, Q., Wang, M., Yang, M., & Fan, X. (2022) · European Journal of Cardiovascular Nursing · doi:10.1093/eurjcn/zvac075 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
Anxiety, panic disorder and coronary artery disease: issues concerning physical exercise and cognitive behavioral therapy
Sardinha, A., de Araújo, C. G. S., Soares‐Filho, G. L., & Nardi, A. E. (2011) · Expert Review of Cardiovascular Therapy · doi:10.1586/erc.10.170 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
Heart-Focused Anxiety and Chest Pain in Postangiography Medical Patients
Zvolensky, M. J., Eifert, G. H., Feldner, M. T., & Leen-Feldner, E. (2003) · Journal of Behavioral Medicine · doi:10.1023/a:1023456419736 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
“In previous studies, we have utilized this tactic successfully (e.g., Eifert et al., 2000a).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialSelf-citation
Neurobiological and clinical effects of fNIRS-controlled rTMS in patients with panic disorder/agoraphobia during cognitive-behavioural therapy
Deppermann, S., Vennewald, N., Diemer, J., Sickinger, S., Haeussinger, F. B., Dresler, T., Notzon, S., Laeger, I., Arolt, V., Ehlis, A., et al. (2017) · NeuroImage Clinical · doi:10.1016/j.nicl.2017.09.013 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
“, 2005) is a self-report questionnaire with good reliability and validity, designed to assess heart focused anxiety (Eifert et al., 2000; Hoyer et al., 2005).”
BackgroundInfluential
Effects of threat context and cardiac sensitivity on fear responding to a 35% CO2 challenge: a test of the context-sensitivity panic vulnerability model.
Telch, M., Smits, J., Brown, M. A., Dement, M., Powers, M., Lee, H., & Pai, A. V. (2010) · Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.jbtep.2010.03.008 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
“However, as noted by Eifert et al. (2000) less than 3% of college”
Background
Does rTMS Alter Neurocognitive Functioning in Patients with Panic Disorder/Agoraphobia? An fNIRS-Based Investigation of Prefrontal Activation during a Cognitive Task and Its Modulation via Sham-Controlled rTMS
Deppermann, S., Vennewald, N., Diemer, J., Sickinger, S., Haeussinger, F. B., Notzon, S., Laeger, I., Arolt, V., Ehlis, A., Zwanzger, P., et al. (2014) · BioMed Research International · doi:10.1155/2014/542526 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
“Anxiety was measured with the following questionnaires: Panic and Agoraphobia Scale (PAS; [43]),Hamilton Anxiety Rating Scale (HAM-A; [44]), and Cardiac Anxiety Questionnaire (CAQ; [45, 46]).”
Method
Sexual Activity and Heart Patients: A Contemporary Perspective
Stein, R., Sardinha, A., & de Araújo, C. G. S. (2015) · Canadian Journal of Cardiology · doi:10.1016/j.cjca.2015.10.010 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
Anxiety and Depression in Adults with Congenital Heart Disease: When to Suspect and How to Refer
Roseman, A., & Kovacs, A. H. (2019) · Current Cardiology Reports · doi:10.1007/s11886-019-1237-2 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Heart-Focused Anxiety Affects Behavioral Cardiac Risk Factors and Quality of Life: A Follow-Up Study Using a Psycho-Cardiological Rehabilitation Concept
Schmitz, C., Wedegärtner, S., Langheim, E., Kleinschmidt, J., & Köllner, V. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2022.836750 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Changes in Quality of Life, Depression, General Anxiety, and Heart-Focused Anxiety After Defibrillator Implantation
Kindermann, I., Wedegärtner, S. M., Bernhard, B., Ukena, J., Lenski, D., Karbach, J., Schwantke, I., Ukena, C., & Böhm, M. (2021) · ESC Heart Failure · doi:10.1002/ehf2.13416 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
“A specific pattern of anxiety is heart-focused anxiety (HFA).(10,11) It comprises the fear of cardiac-related OR IG INAL RESEARCH ART ICLE”
BackgroundMethod
Mental symptoms in patients with cardiac symptoms and normal coronary arteries
Christoph, M., Christoph, A., Dannemann, S., Poitz, D. M., Pfluecke, C., Strasser, R. H., Wunderlich, C., Köllner, V., & Ibrahim, K. S. (2014) · Open Heart · doi:10.1136/openhrt-2014-000093 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
“report inventory scored on a five-point Likert-type scale, anchored from 0 (never) to 4 (always).(12) The CAQ includes three subscales: A.”
Background
Cardiac Exposure History as a Determinant of Symptoms and Emergency Department Utilization in Noncardiac Chest Pain Patients
Aikens, J. E., Michael, E., Levin, T. N., Myers, T. C., Lowry, E., & McCracken, L. M. (1999) · Journal of Behavioral Medicine · doi:10.1023/a:1018745813664 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
Heart-focused anxiety in patients with chronic heart failure before implantation of an implantable cardioverter defibrillator: baseline findings of the anxiety-CHF study
Bunz, M., Lenski, D., Wedegärtner, S., Ukena, C., Karbach, J., Böhm, M., & Kindermann, I. (2016) · Clinical Research in Cardiology · doi:10.1007/s00392-015-0909-1 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
“HFA is defined as ‘‘the fear of cardiac-related stimuli and sensations based upon their perceived negative consequences’’ [12], whereas ‘negative consequences’ refer to harmful cardiac incidents, i.”
BackgroundMethodInfluential
Is the Internet-administered CIDI-SF Equivalent to a Clinician-administered SCID Interview?
Carlbring, P., Forslin, P., Ljungstrand, P., Willebrand, M., Strandlund, C., Ekselius, L., & Andersson, G. (2002) · Cognitive Behaviour Therapy · doi:10.1080/165060702321138573 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
“In connection with the SCID-interview the following questionnaires were administered to the participants; Mobility Inventory for Agoraphobia (MI; Chambless, Caputo, Jasin, Gracely, & Williams, 1985), Anxiety Sensivity Index (ASI; Reiss, Peterson, Gursky, & McNally, 1986) and Cardiac Anxiety Questionaire (CAQ; Eifert e…”
Method
Comparing Two Brief Psychological Interventions to Usual Care in Panic Disorder Patients Presenting to the Emergency Department with Chest Pain
Lessard, M.-J., Marchand, A., Pelland, M., Belleville, G., Vadeboncoeur, A., Chauny, J., Poitras, J., Dupuis, G., Fleet, R., Foldes-Busque, G., et al. (2011) · Behavioural and Cognitive Psychotherapy · doi:10.1017/s1352465811000506 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
“A French translation of the Cardiac Anxiety Questionnaire (CAQ; Eifert et al., 2000) was used to measure heart-focused anxiety, i.e. the fear of cardiac-related stimuli and sensations because of their perceived negative consequences.”
Method
Design, methodology and baseline characteristics of the Women's Ischemia Syndrome Evaluation–Coronary Vascular Dysfunction (WISE-CVD)
Quesada, O., AlBadri, A., Wei, J., SHUFELT, C. L., Mehta, P. K., Maughan, J., Suppogu, N. S., Aldiwani, H., Cook‐Wiens, G., Nelson, M. D., et al. (2019) · American Heart Journal · doi:10.1016/j.ahj.2019.11.017 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
Development and initial validation of the Exercise Sensitivity Questionnaire
Farris, S. G., Burr, E. K., Kibbey, M. M., Abrantes, A., & DiBello, A. M. (2020) · Mental Health and Physical Activity · doi:10.1016/j.mhpa.2020.100346 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
Exposure-Based Therapy for Symptom Preoccupation in Atrial Fibrillation: An Uncontrolled Pilot Study
Särnholm, J., Skúladóttir, H., Rück, C., Pedersen, S. S., Braunschweig, F., & Ljótsson, B. (2017) · Behavior Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.beth.2017.06.001 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Feasibility and Acceptability of Mindfulness-based Cognitive Therapy Compared with Mindfulness-based Stress Reduction and Treatment as Usual in People with Depression and Cardiovascular Disorders: a Three-Arm Randomised Controlled Trial
Alsubaie, M., Dickens, C. M., Dunn, B. D., Gibson, A., Ukoumunne, O. C., Evans, A., Vicary, R., Gandhi, M., & Kuyken, W. (2018) · Mindfulness · doi:10.1007/s12671-018-0999-8 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Anxiety Predicts Poor Perceived Health in Patients With an Implantable Defibrillator
van den Broek, K. C., Nyklíček, I., & Denollet, J. (2009) · Psychosomatics · doi:10.1016/s0033-3182(09)70841-2 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Different cardiovascular risk factors and psychosocial burden in symptomatic women with and without obstructive coronary artery disease
Konst, R. E., Elias‐Smale, S. E., Lier, A., Bode, C., & Maas, A. H. E. M. (2018) · European Journal of Preventive Cardiology · doi:10.1177/2047487318814298 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
One-year follow up of cardiac anxiety after a myocardial infarction: a latent class analysis.
van Beek, M., Mingels, M., Voshaar, R. O., van Balkom, A. V., Lappenschaar, M., Pop, G., & Speckens, A. (2012) · Journal of Psychosomatic Research · doi:10.1016/j.jpsychores.2012.09.004 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
Treatment of depression and anxiety with internet-based cognitive behavior therapy in patients with a recent myocardial infarction (U-CARE Heart): study protocol for a randomized controlled trial
Norlund, F., Olsson, E. M., Burell, G., Wallin, E., & Held, C. (2015) · Trials · doi:10.1186/s13063-015-0689-y · Cited by 33 · see citing works
“CAQ measures fear of, avoidance of, and focus on cardiacrelated stimuli and sensations.”
Method
Optimizing preoperative expectations in cardiac surgery patients is moderated by level of disability: the successful development of a brief psychological intervention
Laferton, J. A. C., Auer, C. J., Mora, M. C. S., Moosdorf, R., & Rief, W. (2015) · Psychology Health & Medicine · doi:10.1080/13548506.2015.1051063 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
“…and anxiety using the hospital anxiety and depression scale (HADS) (Zigmond & Snaith, 1983); (4) cardiac anxiety using the cardiac anxiety questionnaire (Eifert et al., 2000); and (5) perceived social support using the ENRICHD Social Support Inventory (ESSI) (ENRICHED Investigators, 2000).”
Method
Protocol for the development and validation of a measure of persistent psychological and emotional distress in cardiac patients: the Cardiac Distress Inventory
Jackson, A. C., Rogerson, M., Grande, M. R. L., Thompson, D. R., Ski, C. F., Alvarenga, M. E., Amerena, J. V., Higgins, R. O., Raciti, M., & Murphy, B. M. (2020) · BMJ Open · doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2019-034946 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
“Examples of cardiac-specific measures include the Cardiac Depression Scale, 32 the Cardiac Event Threat Questionnaire, 33 the Cardiac Anxiety Questionnaire, 34 the MacNew Quality of Life measure, 35 the Screening Tool for Psychological Distress (STOP-D), 36 the Myocardial Infarction Dimensional Assessment Scale (MIDAS…”
Method
Strength of the genetic counselor: patient relationship is associated with extent of increased empowerment in patients with arrhythmogenic cardiomyopathy
Murray, B. A., Tichnell, C., Burch, A. E., Calkins, H. G., & James, C. A. (2021) · Journal of Genetic Counseling · doi:10.1002/jgc4.1499 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
Symptom Severity and Health-Related Quality of Life in Patients with Atrial Fibrillation: Findings from the Observational ARENA Study
Sadlonova, M., Senges, J., Nagel, J., Celano, C. M., Klasen-Max, C., Borggrefe, M., Akın, İ., Thomas, D., Schwarzbach, C. J., Kleeman, T., et al. (2022) · Journal of Clinical Medicine · doi:10.3390/jcm11041140 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
“The probability of having EHRA class 3 or 4 rather than 1 increased with higher levels of stress related to work (OR 1.3, p = 0.026) and CAQ-2 (OR 1.2, p 0.001).”
MethodInfluential
Effectiveness of Enhanced External Counterpulsation Treatment on Symptom Burden, Medication Profile, Physical Capacity, Cardiac Anxiety, and Health-Related Quality of Life in Patients With Refractory Angina Pectoris
Wu, E., Desta, L., Broström, A., & Mårtensson, J. (2020) · The Journal of Cardiovascular Nursing · doi:10.1097/jcn.0000000000000638 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
“The Cardiac Anxiety Questionnaire subscales score reflect fear, attention, and avoidance of activities.(35) The Seattle Angina Questionnaire, also a valid and reliable diseasespecific instrument, measures functional status and HRQoL in patients with CAD.”
BackgroundMethod
Efficacy of team-based collaborative care for distressed patients in secondary prevention of chronic coronary heart disease (TEACH): study protocol of a multicenter randomized controlled trial
Herrmann‐Lingen, C., Albus, C., de Zwaan, M., Geiser, F., Heinemann, K., Hellmich, M., Michal, M., Sadlonova, M., Tostmann, R., Wachter, R., et al. (2020) · BMC Cardiovascular Disorders · doi:10.1186/s12872-020-01810-9 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
Internet-Delivered Exposure-Based Therapy for Symptom Preoccupation in Atrial Fibrillation: Uncontrolled Pilot Trial
Särnholm, J., Skúladóttir, H., Rück, C., Klavebäck, S., Ólafsdóttir, E., Pedersen, S. S., Braunschweig, F., & Ljótsson, B. (2021) · JMIR Cardio · doi:10.2196/24524 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Investigating the effect of multimedia education in combination with teach-back method on quality of life and cardiac anxiety in patients with heart failure: a randomized clinical trial
Mohammadi, F., Jahromi, M. S., Bijani, M., Karimi, S., & Dehghan, A. (2021) · BMC Cardiovascular Disorders · doi:10.1186/s12872-021-02357-z · Cited by 26 · see citing works
Using a Flexible Virtual Environment for Treating a Storm Phobia
Botella, C., Baños, R., Guerrero, B., García‐Palacios, A., Quero, S., & Alcañíz, M. (2006) · Psychnology · Cited by 26 · see citing works
Psychosocial Adjustment and Quality of Life in Patients With Peripartum Cardiomyopathy
Rosman, L. A., Salmoirago-Blotcher, E., Cahill, J. M., & Sears, S. (2019) · Journal of Cardiovascular Nursing · doi:10.1097/jcn.0000000000000518 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
The associations between psychological distress and health-related quality of life in patients with non-cardiac chest pain
Mourad, G., Alwin, J., Jaarsma, T., Strömberg, A., & Johansson, P. (2020) · Health and Quality of Life Outcomes · doi:10.1186/s12955-020-01297-0 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
What is cardiac distress and how should we measure it?
Jackson, A. C., Murphy, B. M., Thompson, D. R., Ski, C. F., Alvarenga, M. E., Grande, M. R. L., Amerena, J. V., Higgins, R. O., & Barton, D. A. (2018) · British Journal of Cardiac Nursing · doi:10.12968/bjca.2018.13.6.286 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Development of evidence-based clinical algorithms for prescription of exercise-based cardiac rehabilitation
Achttien, R. J., Vromen, T., Staal, J. B., Peek, N. B., Spee, R. F., Niemeijer, V. M., Kemps, H., & panel, O. B. O. T. M. E. (2015) · Netherlands Heart Journal · doi:10.1007/s12471-015-0761-y · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Minding the Genes: a Multidisciplinary Approach towards Genetic Assessment of Cardiovascular Disease
Rhodes, A. C., Rosman, L., Cahill, J., Ingles, J., Murray, B. A., Tichnell, C., James, C. A., & Sears, S. F. (2016) · Journal of Genetic Counseling · doi:10.1007/s10897-016-0017-z · Cited by 23 · see citing works
“…by a preoccupation with cardiac symptoms, excessive cardiac symptom monitoring (e.g., fluctuations in heart rate and blood pressure), avoidance behaviors (e.g., avoiding physical activity due to feared increases in heart rate), and persistent cardiac-specific fear (Eifert et al. 2000).”
BackgroundInfluential
Heart-focused anxiety and health care seeking in patients with non-cardiac chest pain: A prospective study
Tremblay, M.-A., Denis, I., Turcotte, S., Fleet, R. P., Archambault, P. M., Dionne, C. E., & Foldes‐Busque, G. (2017) · General Hospital Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.genhosppsych.2017.10.007 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Psychosocial and lifestyle impacts of spontaneous coronary artery dissection: A quantitative study
Murphy, B. M., Rogerson, M. C., Grande, M. R. L., Hesselson, S., Iismaa, S. E., Graham, R. M., & Jackson, A. C. (2024) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0296224 · Cited by 22 · see citing works

Cold stress and the endocrine testis.
Perrault, M. J. (1964) · PubMed · doi:10.20381/ruor-11678
The Cardiac Anxiety Questionnaire: Cross-Validation among Cardiac Inpatients
Van Beek, M. H. C. T., Voshaar, R. C. O., Van Deelen, F. M., Van Balkom, A. J. L. M., Pop, G., & Speckens, A. E. M. (2012) · The International Journal of Psychiatry in Medicine · doi:10.2190/pm.43.4.e · Cited by 41 · see citing works
Heart-Focused Anxiety in Patients With Noncardiac Chest Pain
Israel, J., White, K. S., Farmer, C. C., Pardue, C. M., & Gervino, E. (2017) · Assessment (Odessa, Fla.) · doi:10.1177/1073191115597059 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Original Article Brazilian Portuguese Validated Version of the Cardiac Anxiety Questionnaire
Sardinha, A., Nardi, A. E., Gil, C., de Araújo, S., Ferreira, M. C., Eifert, G. H., Address, M., & Sardinha, A. (2013)
Self-citation
Fundamentos: A ansiedade cardíaca (AC) é o medo de sensações cardíacas, caracterizado por sintomas recorrentes de ansiedade em pacientes com ou sem doença cardiovascular. O Questionário de Ansiedade Cardíaca (QAC) é uma ferramenta para avaliar a AC, já adaptado, mas não validado em português.
Sardinha, A., Nardi, A. E., Gil, C., de Araújo, S., Ferreira, M. C., & Eifert, G. H. (2013)
Self-citation

Authors: Eifert, G. H., Thompson, R. N., Zvolensky, M. J., Edwards, K., Frazer, N. L., Haddad, J. W., & Davig, J.
Affiliations: West Virginia University (US)
Corresponding author: Eifert, Georg H
ORCID: Eifert, Georg H
Zvolensky, Michael J
Venue: Behaviour Research and Therapy
Publisher: Elsevier BV
Published: 2000-10
Volume: 38
Issue: 10
Pages: 1039-1053
ISSN: 0005-7967 (ISSN-L)
DOI: 10.1016/s0005-7967(99)00132-1
OpenAlex: W2015235226
Cited by: 349
References: 44
Citations by year: 2026: 24 · 2025: 28 · 2024: 25 · 2023: 23 · 2022: 43 · 2021: 23 · 2020: 27 · 2019: 12 · 2018: 15 · 2017: 9 · 2016: 15 · 2015: 12 · 2014: 10 · 2013: 11 · 2012: 12
FWCI: 4.33
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Licence: www.elsevier.com/tdm/userlicense/1.0/ (tdm)
Locations: Behaviour Research and Therapy (publishedVersion)
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes
Health Sciences › Medicine › Cardiology and Cardiovascular Medicine › Cardiac Health and Mental Health
Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Psychosomatic Disorders and Their Treatments
Keywords: psychometric development, questionnaire validation, avoidance, attention, chest pain, cardiac patients, anxiety assessment, factor structure

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The Cardiac Anxiety Questionnaire: development and preliminary validity

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