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Faecal contamination of greywater and associated microbial risks
Abstract
The faecal contamination of greywater in a local treatment system at Vibyåsen, north of Stockholm, Sweden was quantified using faecal indicator bacteria and chemical biomarkers. Bacterial indicator densities overestimated the faecal load by 100-1000-fold when compared to chemical biomarkers. Based on measured levels of coprostanol, the faecal load was estimated to be 0.04 g person(-1) day(-1). Prevalence of pathogens in the population and the faecal load were used to form the basis of a screening-level quantitative microbial risk assessment (QMRA) that was undertaken for rotavirus, Salmonella typhimurium, Campylobacter jejuni, Giardia lamblia and Cryptosporidium parvum. The different exposure scenarios simulated--direct contact, irrigation of sport fields and groundwater recharge--gave unacceptably high rotavirus risks (0.04 < Pinf < 0.60) despite a low faecal load. The poor reduction of somatic coliphages, which were used as a virus model, in the treatment was one main reason and additional treatment of the greywater is suggested. Somatic coliphages can under extreme circumstances replicate in the wastewater treatment system and thereby underestimate the virus reduction. An alternative QMRA method based on faecal enterococci densities estimated similar risks as for rotavirus. Growth conditions for Salmonella in greywater sediments were also investigated and risk modelling based on replication in the system increased the probability of infection from Salmonella 1000-fold, but it was still lower than the risk of a rotavirus infection.
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“Studies conducted by Eriksson et al. (2002) and Ottoson and Stenstrom (2003) revealed a large collection of excreta-related pathogens associated with greywater.”
From Greywater Characteristics, Treatment Systems, Reuse Strategies and User Perception—a Review (2018) · cites this paper as Ottoson and Stenstrom 2003
In the citing paper
“Inappropriate food handling in the kitchen and direct handling of contaminated food have been identified as sources of enteric pathogenic bacteria such as Salmonella and Campylobacter into greywater (Maimon et al. 2014; Ottoson and Stenstrom 2003).”
From Greywater Characteristics, Treatment Systems, Reuse Strategies and User Perception—a Review (2018) · cites this paper as Ottoson and Stenstrom 2003
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“indicator of pathogens concentration in wastewater, may be insufficient to fully characterise its microbial quality and the associated health risk (Avery, 2005; Ottoson and Stenstrom, 2003 ).”
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“…cholerae was observed at low environmental carbon concentrations (Mourino-Perez et al., 2003; Worden et al., 2006), whereas Salmonella sp. was reported to grow only under highly eutrophic conditions as found, for example, in greywater (Ottoson & Stenstrom, 2003) or in compost (Sidhu et al., 2001).”
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BackgroundKhan, M. M., Siddiqi, S. A., Farooque, A. A., Iqbal, Q., Shahid, S. A., Akram, M. T., Rahman, S., Al-Busaidi, W. M., & Khan, İ. (2022) · Agronomy · doi:10.3390/agronomy12061397 · Cited by 96
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“Human health risks depend on the source of the pathogens, the treatment applied and the exposure route (Ottoson & Stenström 2003).”
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More environmentally friendly vehicle washes: water reclamation
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“Because toilet flushing, washing faecally contaminated laundry, childcare, and showering are not included in these wastewater streams, the faecal load (Ottoson, 2003; Ottoson and Stenström, 2003) seems to be negligible and the use of E. coli for QMRA is appropriate.”
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Greywater Reuse System Design and Economic Analysis for Residential Buildings in Taiwan
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“These indicators suggest the possibility of the presence of enteric pathogenic bacteria (e.g., Salmonella, Campylobacter), protozoa (e.g., Cryptosporidium, Giardia), and viruses (e.g., rotavirus, norovirus) in greywater (Ottoson and Stenström 2003).”
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“However, studies (Ottoson and Stenström 2003; Casanova et al. 2001; Rose et al. 1991) have shown that household greywater contains significant concentrations of total and fecal coliform bacteria.”
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“When recycling other fractions such as urine or grey-water, the potential faecal cross-contamination and related pathogens may constitute the main risk (Höglund 2001; Ottoson & Stenström 2003).”
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Research on reclaimed water from the past to the future: a review
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“Quantitative microbial risk assessment (QMBA) simulates different exposure scenarios: direct exposure, irrigation and groundwater recharge (Ottoson & Stenstrom, 2003).”
BackgroundUm novo paradigma para a gestão de recursos hídricos
Hespanhol, I. (2008) · Estudos Avançados · doi:10.1590/s0103-40142008000200009 · Cited by 56
“…de lavatórios, chuveiros, banheiras, pias de cozinha e de máquinas ou tanques de lavar roupas (Jefferson et al., 1999; eriksson et al. 2002; ottoson & stenstrom, 2003). as águas cinza-claras são também águas residenciais das quais se excluem, além dos efluentes de vasos sanitários,…”
BackgroundEffects of long-term greywater disposal on soil: A case study
Siggins, A., Burton, V., Ross, C. W., Lowe, H., & Horswell, J. (2016) · The Science of The Total Environment · doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2016.03.084 · Cited by 54
Greywater reuse - Assessment of the health risk induced by Legionella pneumophila
Blanky, M., Sharaby, Y., Rodríguez-Martínez, S., Halpern, M., & Friedler, E. (2017) · Water Research · doi:10.1016/j.watres.2017.08.068 · Cited by 54
“QMRA has been applied to GW, for other (non-Legionella) pathogens 99 (Ottoson and Stenström, 2003; Maimon et al., 2010, 2014), while the risk due to exposure to 100 Legionella through GW reuse has not been assessed yet.”
MethodEssential oils for the disinfection of grey water
Winward, G. P., Avery, L. M., Stephenson, T., & Jefferson, B. (2008) · Water Research · doi:10.1016/j.watres.2007.12.004 · Cited by 54
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Household greywater treatment methods using natural materials and their hybrid system
Wurochekke, A. A., Mohamed, R. M. S. R., Al-Gheethi, A. A. S., Atiku, H., Amir, H., & Matias‐Peralta, H. M. (2016) · Journal of Water and Health · doi:10.2166/wh.2016.054 · Cited by 53
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“Previous studies used the beta-Poisson dose-response model for Salmonella enterica [17,18,40,41] and Shigella spp.”
MethodResultGreywater production in airports: Qualitative and quantitative assessment
do Couto, E. D. A., Calijuri, M. L., Assemany, P. P., Santiago, A. D. F., & Carvalho, I. D. C. (2013) · Resources, Conservation and Recycling · doi:10.1016/j.resconrec.2013.05.004 · Cited by 51
“Halalsheh et al. (2008) analyzed reywater produced in small rural villages in Jordan and found . coli values of up to 105 NMP/100 mL. Ottoson and Stenstrom 2003), in a study carried out in Stockholm, Sweden, obtained E. coli alues of up to 106 NMP/100 mL.”
ResultPinto, U., & Maheshwari, B. L. (2010) · Urban Water Journal · doi:10.1080/15730620903447639 · Cited by 56
“2002 ; Ottoson and Stenstrom 2003 ; Palmquist and Hanaeus 2005 ).”
BackgroundMicrobial risk assessment and its implications for risk management in urban water systems
Westrell, T. (2004) · KTH Publication Database DiVA (KTH Royal Institute of Technology) · Cited by 52
Li, L., Xiao, K., Wong, P. K., et al. (2022) · ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces · doi:10.1021/acsami.1c20834 · Cited by 51
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Starkl, M., Josephine, A., Aymerich, E., Brunner, N., Chubilleau, C., Das, S., Ghangrekar, M. M., Kazmi, A. A., Philip, L., & Singh, A. (2018) · Environmental Impact Assessment Review · doi:10.1016/j.eiar.2018.03.002 · Cited by 51
Resources and nutrients oriented greywater treatment for non-potable reuses
Li, F., Behrendt, J., Wichmann, K., & Otterpohl, R. (2008) · Water Science and Technology · doi:10.2166/wst.2008.601 · Cited by 50
“Greywater is defined as the urban wastewater that includes water from baths, showers, hand wash basins, washing machines, dishwashers and kitchen sinks, but excludes input from toilets ( Jefferson et al. 1999; Otterpohl et al. 1999; Eriksson et al. 2002; Ottoson & Stenström 2003).”
BackgroundExposure Assessment and Risk of Gastrointestinal Illness Among Surfers
Stone, D. L., Harding, A. K., Hope, B. K., et al. (2008) · Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health · doi:10.1080/15287390802414406 · Cited by 50
“The infectivity parameter (k) was drawn from a triangular distribution with minimum of 177 (Ottoson & Stenström, 2003), a mode of 1442, and a maximum of 14,427.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialAnalysing the financial efficiency of use of water and energy saving systems in single-family homes
Stec, A., Kordana-Obuch, S., & Słyś, D. (2017) · Journal of Cleaner Production · doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2017.03.071 · Cited by 49
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Greywater treatment by slanted soil system
Ushijima, K., Ito, K., Ito, R., et al. (2012) · Ecological Engineering · doi:10.1016/j.ecoleng.2012.04.028 · Cited by 47
“…for irrigation use, however separated gerywater contains 2 log 10 or more lower bacterial pathogen than mixture wastewater which WHO assumed (Ottoson & Stenström, 2003) and therefore we are able to set 5 log 10 as a target level of bacterial pathogen reduction for separated greywater…”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialKatukiza, A. Y., Ronteltap, M., Niwagaba, C. B., Kansiime, F., & Lens, P. N. L. (2014) · Journal of Environmental Management · doi:10.1016/j.jenvman.2013.12.003 · Cited by 46
Reduction of microbial risk associated with greywater by disinfection processes for irrigation
Al-Gheethi, A. A. S., Mohamed, R. M. S. R., Noman, E. A., & Hashim, M. K. A. (2015) · Journal of Water and Health · doi:10.2166/wh.2015.220 · Cited by 49
Sustainability Assessment for Wastewater Treatment Systems in Developing Countries
Starkl, M., Brunner, N., Das, S., et al. (2022) · Water · doi:10.3390/w14020241 · Cited by 45
Tombola, R., Buttiglieri, G., Auset, M., & Gonzalez‐Olmos, R. (2019) · Journal of Environmental Management · doi:10.1016/j.jenvman.2019.02.116 · Cited by 44
Review of pathogen treatment reductions for onsite non-potable reuse of alternative source waters
Schoen, M. E., & Garland, J. L. (2015) · Microbial Risk Analysis · doi:10.1016/j.mran.2015.10.001 · Cited by 43
Yasar, A., & Tabinda, A. B. (2010) · Polish Journal of Environmental Studies · Cited by 42
The Missing Pieces: The Role of Secretion Systems in Campylobacter jejuni Virulence
Gabbert, A. D., Mydosh, J. L., Talukdar, P. K., Gloss, L. M., McDermott, J., Cooper, K. K., Clair, G., & Konkel, M. E. (2023) · Biomolecules · doi:10.3390/biom13010135 · Cited by 44
“Humans may be exposed through water systems by accidental ingestion, following landscape irrigation, or by consumption of recharged groundwater [19].”
BackgroundBusgang, A., Friedler, E., Ovadia, O., & Gross, A. (2015) · The Science of The Total Environment · doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2015.08.009 · Cited by 42
Greywater technology testing protocol
Storey, M., Toifl, M., & Diaper, C. (2008) · CSIRO · doi:10.4225/08/59aef594a011d · Cited by 41
Campylobacter risk for the consumers of wastewater-irrigated vegetables based on field experiments
Farhadkhani, M., Nikaeen, M., Hadi, M., Gholipour, S., & Yadegarfar, G. (2020) · Chemosphere · doi:10.1016/j.chemosphere.2020.126408 · Cited by 40
Greywater disinfection with the environmentally friendly Hydrogen Peroxide Plus (HPP)
Ronen, Z., Guerrero, A., & Gross, A. (2009) · Chemosphere · doi:10.1016/j.chemosphere.2009.09.067 · Cited by 40
Bernardes, F. S., Herrera, P. G., Chiquito, G. M., Morales, M., de Castro, A. P., & Paulo, P. L. (2019) · Ecological Engineering · doi:10.1016/j.ecoleng.2019.105581 · Cited by 40
ULTRAVIOLET (UV) DISINFECTION OF GREY WATER: PARTICLE SIZE EFFECTS
Winward, G. P., Avery, L. M., Stephenson, T., & Jefferson, B. (2008) · Environmental Technology · doi:10.1080/09593330802030069 · Cited by 40
“The presence of faecal indicator bacteria Escherichia coli and Enterococci in grey water [7] indicates the potential presence of faecally-transmitted pathogens.”
BackgroundThe question of pathogen quantification in disinfected graywater
Benami, M., Gillor, O., & Gross, A. (2014) · The Science of The Total Environment · doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2014.11.051 · Cited by 39
Qian, Y., Criswell, M., Stromberger, M. E., & Klein, S. (2006) · Cited by 39
Bischel, H. N., Caduff, L., Schindelholz, S., et al. (2019) · Environmental Science & Technology · doi:10.1021/acs.est.9b01092 · Cited by 38
Combination of foam fractionation and photo-Fenton like processes for greywater treatment
Faggiano, A., Ricciardi, M., Fiorentino, A., et al. (2022) · Separation and Purification Technology · doi:10.1016/j.seppur.2022.121114 · Cited by 38
Strategic Planning of Sustainable Urban Water Management
Malmqvist, P., Heinicke, G., Kärrman, E., Stenström, T. A., & Svensson, G. (2015) · Water Intelligence Online · doi:10.2166/9781780402413 · Cited by 38
Self-citationJahne, M. A., Schoen, M. E., Garland, J. L., & Ashbolt, N. J. (2016) · Microbial Risk Analysis · doi:10.1016/j.mran.2016.11.001 · Cited by 38
“An alternative approach is the use of indicators to determine fecal contamination of the water and epidemiological data to estimate pathogens shed in that feces (Barker et al., 2013a; Ottoson and Stenström, 2003; Schoen et al., 2014; Fane et al., 2002).”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialA probabilistic QMRA of Salmonella in direct agricultural reuse of treated municipal wastewater
Amha, Y. M., Kumaraswamy, R., & Ahmad, F. (2015) · Water Science & Technology · doi:10.2166/wst.2015.093 · Cited by 36
Health risk assessment of non-potable domestic water supplies in the Netherlands
Oesterholt, F. I. H. M., Martijnse, G., Medema, G. J., et al. (2007) · AQUA - Water Infrastructure Ecosystems and Society · doi:10.2166/aqua.2007.043 · Cited by 36
Risk-based cost-benefit analysis for evaluating microbial risk mitigation in a drinking water system
Bergion, V., Lindhé, A., Sokolova, E., et al. (2017) · Water Research · doi:10.1016/j.watres.2017.12.054 · Cited by 36
Metadata
- Authors
- Ottoson, J., & Stenström, T. A.
- Affiliations
- Swedish Institute (SE)
- Corresponding author
- Ottoson, Jakob
- Venue
- Water Research
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2003-02
- Volume
- 37
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 645-655
- ISSN
- 0043-1354 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2043053897
- Semantic Scholar
- 3a1d9d5c985c69e711621b450913e97f7b3ea62d
- Cited by
- 339
- References
- 55
- Citations by year
- 2026: 10 · 2025: 7 · 2024: 15 · 2023: 14 · 2022: 18 · 2021: 13 · 2020: 13 · 2019: 21 · 2018: 20 · 2017: 13 · 2016: 19 · 2015: 26 · 2014: 22 · 2013: 21 · 2012: 12
- FWCI
- 9.46
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Water Research (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Water Science and Technology › Fecal contamination and water quality
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Waste Management and Disposal › Wastewater Treatment and Reuse
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Pollution › Pharmaceutical and Antibiotic Environmental Impacts
- Keywords
- greywater, fecal contamination, fecal indicator bacteria, chemical markers, coprostanol, quantitative microbial risk assessment, rotavirus, Salmonella typhimurium, Campylobacter jejuni, Giardia lamblia, Cryptosporidium parvum, somatic coliphages, groundwater recharge, fecal enterococci
- MeSH terms
- Bacteria, Conservation of Natural Resources, Feces, Models, Theoretical, Rotavirus, Waste Disposal, Fluid, Water Supply, Biomarkers, Risk Assessment
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