The DOI matches its Crossref record; 51 of the 52 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
Differential subjective effects of d-amphetamine by gender, hormone levels and menstrual cycle phase
Abstract
Estrogen and progesterone interact with monoamines in ways that suggest the potential modulation of responses to psychoactive drugs by endogenous steroids, both between menstrual phases and between the sexes. The present study assessed the subjective and physiological effects of a single dose of D-amphetamine (AMPH; 15 mg oral) in healthy, normally cycling women (n=13), who received amphetamine and placebo (PL) during both the follicular and luteal phases of a single menstrual cycle, and in healthy men (n=7). Females reported greater amphetamine-induced subjective stimulation [Addiction Research Center Inventory (ARCI)-A, ARCI-MBG; Drug Effects Questionnaire (DEQ) Feel Drug, Feel High, Want More] during the follicular phase than the luteal phase. Within the follicular phase, the magnitude of individuals' AMPH-induced stimulation was positively associated with baseline (predrug) salivary estradiol [r=+.55-.78; Profile of Mood States (POMS) Vigor, Positive Mood, Elation], and negatively associated with salivary progesterone [r=-.66-.68; POMS Friendliness; Subjective States Questionnaire (SSQ) Pleasant Sedation]. Sex differences also emerged. Males reported feeling greater AMPH-induced stimulation (ARCI-A, ARCI-MBG; DEQ Feel Drug, Want More) than females in the luteal phase. Thus, higher levels of estrogen and lower levels of progesterone are associated with greater subjective stimulation after AMPH in women, and these hormonal influences contribute to sex differences in amphetamine responding.
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“Additionally, during periods of low oestrogen, increased ADHD symptoms [30,41,91,92] and decreased response to psychostimulant medication [25,42,93,94,95] have been described.”
From A Female-Specific Treatment Group for ADHD—Description of the Programme and Qualitative Analysis of First Experiences (2024) · cites this paper as [95]
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InfluentialΔ9-Tetrahydrocannabinol at Retrieval Drives False Recollection of Neutral and Emotional Memories
Doss, M. K., Weafer, J. J., Gallo, D. A., & de Wit, H. (2018) · Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2018.04.020 · Cited by 39
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“Women not on hormonal birth control were tested only during their follicular phase (White et al, 2002).”
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Ballard, M. E., Gallo, D. A., & de Wit, H. (2013) · Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1097/jcp.0000000000000039 · Cited by 37
“Women not taking hormonal contraceptives (n = 10 of 16) were tested during their follicular phase only because hormonal fluctuations of the menstrual cycle can influence responses to the drug.(35)”
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“Women were tested in the follicular phase of the menstrual cycle because of dampened response to amphetamine during the luteal phase (White et al, 2002).”
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“Females who were not on hormonal contraception were tested only in the follicular phase of their menstrual cycle (White et al., 2002).”
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“…the effects of differences in dopamine function discussed above, there is evidence that the response to amphetamine varies as a function of gender and hormone levels (Justice and de Wit 2000a,b; White et al. 2002) although the effects of these variables have not been tested on memory specifically.”
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Lott, D. C., Kim, S., Cook, E. H., & de Wit, H. (2006) · American Journal on Addictions · doi:10.1080/10550490600859868 · Cited by 32
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“Females not on hormonal contraception completed drug administration sessions in the follicular phase of their menstrual cycle (White et al, 2002).”
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Neural activation to monetary reward is associated with amphetamine reward sensitivity
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“Females not on hormonal contraception completed drug administration sessions in the follicular phase of their menstrual cycle [28].”
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“Women not taking hormonal contraceptives in the AMP group (n06 of 12) were tested during their follicular phase only because hormonal fluctuations of the menstrual cycle can influence responses to the drug (White et al. 2002).”
BackgroundMethodAcute Effects of Methylphenidate, Modafinil, and MDMA on Negative Emotion Processing
Schmidt, A., Müller, F., Dolder, P. C., Schmid, Y., Zanchi, D., Egloff, L., Liechti, M. E., & Borgwardt, S. (2017) · The International Journal of Neuropsychopharmacology · doi:10.1093/ijnp/pyx112 · Cited by 24
“All female subjects used oral contraceptives and were investigated during the follicular phase of their menstrual cycle (day 2–14 after the start of the menstruation according to self-report) to account for cyclic changes in reactivity, which has been demonstrated to modulate amphetamine effects (White et al., 2002).”
Neural mechanisms of reproduction in females as a predisposing factor for drug addiction
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The Effects of Progesterone Pretreatment on the Response to Oral d-Amphetamine in Women
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“During the normal menstrual cycle, the subjective effects of oral AMPH (Justice and de Wit, 1999; White et al., 2002) and cocaine (Evans et al., 2002; Sofuoglu et al., 1999) were attenuated in women during the luteal phase of the menstrual cycle, when progesterone levels are elevated.”
BackgroundThe effects of social contact on cocaine intake in female rats
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“…women reported increased subjective ratings of euphoria and craving following administration of amphetamine and smoked cocaine during the follicular phase of the menstrual cycle compared to the luteal phase (Evans and Foltin, 2006; Evans et al., 2002; Justice and de Wit, 1999; White et al., 2002).”
Sweet taste liking is associated with subjective response to amphetamine in women but not men
Weafer, J. J., Lyon, N., Hedeker, D., & de Wit, H. (2017) · Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1007/s00213-017-4702-x · Cited by 23
“Females who were not on hormonal contraception completed drug administration sessions only in the follicular phase of their menstrual cycle, as subjective response to amphetamine is dampened during the luteal phase (White et al. 2002).”
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BackgroundDoes COMT genotype influence the effects of d‐amphetamine on executive functioning?
Wardle, M. C., Hart, A. B., Palmer, A. A., & de Wit, H. (2013) · Genes, Brain and Behavior · doi:10.1111/gbb.12012 · Cited by 29
“Women not on hormonal birth control were scheduled only during the follicular phase of the menstrual cycle (White et al. 2002), and all female participants provided urine samples for pregnancy tests before each session.”
MethodEffects of acute methamphetamine on emotional memory formation in humans: encoding vs consolidation
Ballard, M. E., Weafer, J., Gallo, D. A., & de Wit, H. (2015) · PLOS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0117062 · Cited by 20
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“Evidence suggests that amphetamines interact with estrogens, as higher estrogen levels in female individuals are associated with increased subjective effects (Justice & De Wit, 1999; White et al., 2002).”
Smith, C. T., Dang, L. C., Burgess, L. L., Perkins, S. F., Juan, M. D. S., Smith, D. K., Cowan, R. L., Le, N. T., KESSLER, R. M., Samanez-Larkin, G. R., et al. (2018) · Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1007/s00213-018-5083-5 · Cited by 20
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“As described above, some of the subject-rated effects of d-amphetamine are menstrual cycle phase dependent (Justice and de Wit, 1999;White et al., 2002), which might translate to the discriminative-stimulus effects as well (Preston and Bigelow, 1991; reviewed in Kelly et Lile et al.”
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“The co-morbidity of disturbances in sleep and ental health functioning found in the present study also suggests hat these are likely to co-occur in ecstasy users (Ogeil et al., 2012a). possible common mechanism might include the circadian sysem (Wirz-Justice, 2006).”
BackgroundWang, J., Zhuang, J.-Y., Fu, L., Lei, Q., Fan, M., & Zhang, W. (2020) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0237032 · Cited by 19
“But during the LP, these effects of E2 were disappeared when PROG was high [25, 26].”
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“Women have a greater response to amphetamine (White et al., 2002) or cocaine when oestrogen levels are high, and their response was reduced when they were given progesterone (Evans and Foltin, 2006; Evans et al.”
BackgroundLangenecker, S. A., Kling, L. R., Crane, N. A., Gorka, S. M., Nusslock, R., Damme, K. S. F., Weafer, J. J., de Wit, H., & Phan, K. L. (2019) · Drug and Alcohol Dependence · doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2019.107725 · Cited by 19
“who were not on hormonal contraception completed the drug administration sessions during the follicular phase of the menstrual cycle (White et al., 2002).”
BackgroundFamily History of Alcoholism and Response to Amphetamine: Sex Differences in the Effect of Risk
Gabbay, F. H. (2005) · Alcoholism Clinical and Experimental Research · doi:10.1097/01.alc.0000164380.16043.4f · Cited by 18
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“Both amphetamines increased the concentrations of the active glucocorticoids 480 cortisol and corticosterone and their respective inactive metabolite and precursor cortisone 481 and 11-dehydrocorticosterone, which has been similarly reported for lower doses of D482 amphetamine [16, 25, 26, 28-31, 47].”
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“In humans, the follicular phase of the menstrual cycle precipitates larger reinforcing effects of cocaine and d-amphetamine (Evans et al. 2002; White et al. 2002; reviewed in Joyce et al. 2021).”
BackgroundMaria, M. M. M., Sherman, B. J., Brady, K. T., Baker, N. L., Hyer, J. M., Ferland‐Beckham, C., & McRae‐Clark, A. L. (2017) · Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.pbb.2017.11.001 · Cited by 16
“For example, estrogen enhances the reinforcing effects of stimulants and may increase the vulnerability of women to drug craving and relapse (Anker et al., 2007; Evans et al., 2002; Justice and de Wit, 1999, 2000; Larson et al., 2005, 2007; Lile et al., 2007; White et al., 2002).”
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Neuroscience of Drugs and Addiction
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Are attention lapses related to d-amphetamine liking?
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“…the follicular phase when estradiol levels are high than during the luteal phase when progesterone levels are elevated (Evans et al. 2002; Evans and Foltin 2006; Justice and de Wit 1999; Sofuoglu et al. 1999; White et al. 2002, but see Lukas et al. 1996; Mendelson et al. 2001; Collins et al. 2007).”
BackgroundSex Differences and Exogenous Estrogen Influence Learning and Brain Responses to Prediction Errors
Joue, G., Chakroun, K., Bayer, J., Gläscher, J. P., Zhang, L., Fuß, J., Hennies, N., & Sommer, T. (2021) · Cerebral Cortex · doi:10.1093/cercor/bhab334 · Cited by 14
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“Women were tested only during the follicular phase of their cycle (White et al., 2002).”
BackgroundThe Amphetamine Response Moderates the Relationship Between Negative Emotionality and Alcohol Use
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“To avoid possible hormonal effects on amphetamine response (Justice and de Wit, 1999; White et al., 2002), all sessions were held in the late menstrual/early follicular phase of each woman’s cycle (i.”
MDMA does not alter responses to the Trier Social Stress Test in humans
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“Women were tested during the follicular stage of their menstrual cycle (days 2–14) to control for the effects of hormonal fluctuations on stress responses and stimulant drugs (Kirschbaum et al. 1999; White et al. 2002).”
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“Women not taking hormonal contraceptives were tested during their follicular phase because hormonal fluctuations can influence drug responses [15].”
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“Another limitation of the sample size was the inability to examine gender differences, as gender and menstrual cycle phase are known to modulate the acute effects of d-amphetamine [65,66].”
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“Additionally, during periods of low oestrogen, increased ADHD symptoms [30,41,91,92] and decreased response to psychostimulant medication [25,42,93–95] have been described.”
BackgroundADHD in Females Across the Lifespan and the Role of Estrogen
Littman, E., Dean, J. M., Wagenberg, B., & Wasserstein, J. (2021) · The ADHD Report · doi:10.1521/adhd.2021.29.5.1 · Cited by 10
Subjective responses predict d-amphetamine choice in healthy volunteers
Murray, C. H., Li, J., Weafer, J. J., & de Wit, H. (2021) · Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.pbb.2021.173158 · Cited by 9
Pharmacokinetics of omeprazole and its metabolites in three phases of menstrual cycle
Nazir, S., Iqbal, Z. M., Ahmad, L., Shah, Y., & Nasir, F. (2014) · European Journal of Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics · doi:10.1007/s13318-013-0167-4 · Cited by 10
Effects of menstrual cycle phase on the reinforcing effects of phencyclidine (PCP) in rhesus monkeys
NEWMAN, J., THORNE, J., Batulis, D. K., & CARROLL, M. (2006) · Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.pbb.2006.10.013 · Cited by 10
“In a subsequent study White et al. (2002) found that positive subject-rated effects of amphetamine were positively correlated with levels of salivary estrogen and negatively correlated with salivary progesterone levels during the follicular and luteal phases, respectively.”
BackgroundMcNealy, K. R., Houser, S. D., Barrett, S. T., & Bevins, R. A. (2021) · Neuropharmacology · doi:10.1016/j.neuropharm.2021.108845 · Cited by 10
McNealy, K. R., Ramsay, M. E., Barrett, S. T., & Bevins, R. A. (2021) · Behavioural Pharmacology · doi:10.1097/fbp.0000000000000637 · Cited by 8
“Estradiol, the primary female sex hormone, has been implicated in sex differences in response to d-amphetamine (Peris et al., 1991; Becker et al., 2001; White et al., 2002; Walker et al., 2012; Zovkic and McCormick, 2019).”
BackgroundBabalonis, S. L., Emurian, C. S., Martin, C. A., Lile, J. A., & Kelly, T. H. (2008) · Drug and Alcohol Dependence · doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2007.11.007 · Cited by 9
“The correlations between serum levels of estradiol and progesterone and drug response have been demonstrated (White et al, 2002; Justice & de Wit, 2000; de Wit & Rukstalis, 1997).”
BackgroundMethamphetamine alters nucleus accumbens neural activation to monetary loss in healthy young adults
Crane, N. A., Molla, H. M., & de Wit, H. (2023) · Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1007/s00213-023-06398-4 · Cited by 8
Harrison, N. A., Earley, R. L., & Salekin, R. T. (2020) · Psychophysiology · doi:10.1111/psyp.13694 · Cited by 8
Oliva, A. B., Reed, S. C., Brooks, D. J., LEVIN, F. R., & Evans, S. M. (2022) · The American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse · doi:10.1080/00952990.2022.2114004 · Cited by 8
“In studies that compared men and women, the positive subjective effects of amphetamine (7) and cocaine (6,8,9) were similar in men compared to women tested during the follicular phase, whereas during the luteal phase the response in women was reduced.”
ResultGriffith, A. K., Martel, M. M., Eisenlohr-Moul, T. A., & Fillmore, M. T. (2022) · Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1037/pha0000611 · Cited by 10
Subjective responses to amphetamine in young adults with previous mood elevation experiences
Schepers, S. T., Arndt, D. L., Rogers, R. D., Hedeker, D., & de Wit, H. (2019) · Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1007/s00213-019-05295-z · Cited by 8
Findeis, H., & Strauß, M. (2025) · Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology and Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.pnpbp.2025.111261 · Cited by 9
“Three years later, in their study of mentally healthy women, White et al. (2002) also showed a positive correlation between oestrogen amphetamine effectiveness and an inverse correlation between progesterone and the of D-amphetamine.”
Gender Differences in Adults with ADHD
Schiros, A., London, A. S., & Antshel, K. M. (2023) · Autism and child psychopathology series · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-41709-2_2 · Cited by 7
A rapid enhancement of locomotor sensitization to amphetamine by estradiol in female rats
Zovkic, I. B., & McCormick, C. M. (2017) · Physiology & Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.physbeh.2017.11.013 · Cited by 7
Nicotine Pretreatment Increases Dysphoric Effects of Alcohol in Luteal-Phase Female Volunteers
Penetar, D. M., Kouri, E. M., McCarthy, E. M., Lilly, M. M., Peters, E. N., Juliano, T. M., & Lukas, S. E. (2009) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph6020526 · Cited by 7
“associated with the follicular and luteal phases [23-26].”
BackgroundMolla, H. M., Keedy, S., DeBrosse, J., & de Wit, H. (2023) · Cerebral Cortex Communications · doi:10.1093/texcom/tgad014 · Cited by 6
“Females who were not on hormonal birth control attended sessions during the follicular phase of their menstrual cycle (White et al. 2002).”
BackgroundExtinction of Conditioned Responses to Methamphetamine-Associated Stimuli in Healthy Humans
Cavallo, J. S., Ruiz, N. A., & de Wit, H. (2016) · Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1007/s00213-016-4297-7 · Cited by 6
“Women who were not on hormonal birth control completed all conditioning sessions during the follicular phase of their menstrual cycle (White et al. 2002).”
Du, X., McCarthny, C. R., Notaras, M. J., van den Buuse, M., & Hill, R. (2019) · Hormones and Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.yhbeh.2019.03.005 · Cited by 6
Duncan, P. M. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781139025515 · Cited by 8
Is Illicit Substance Use Gender-Specific? The Basic Points of Mental and Health Disorders
Georgieva, E., Benkova, K., Vlaeva, N., Karamalakova, Y. D., Miteva, R., Abrashev, H., & Nikolova, G. (2022) · Toxics · doi:10.3390/toxics10070344 · Cited by 5
Acquisition of Conditioning between Methamphetamine and Cues in Healthy Humans
Cavallo, J. S., Mayo, L. M., & de Wit, H. (2016) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0161541 · Cited by 5
“Women who were not on hormonal birth control completed all conditioning sessions during the follicular phase of their menstrual cycle [43].”
BackgroundSex differences in the response to treatment of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder
Müller, E. D., & Fender, A. C. (2025) · Naunyn-Schmiedeberg s Archives of Pharmacology · doi:10.1007/s00210-025-04716-5 · Cited by 4
“The amphetamine response during the female luteal phase was also lower than that reported by males (White et al. 2002).”
Effects of methamphetamine on two measures of reward: Euphoria and neural activation to reward cues
Molla, H. M., DeBrosse, J., Keedy, S., Lee, R., & de Wit, H. (2025) · Neuropsychopharmacology · doi:10.1038/s41386-025-02110-6 · Cited by 4
“Women with normal menstrual cycles (i.e., not taking birth control medications) attended sessions during the follicular phase of their menstrual cycle [27].”
Hoots, J. K., Webber, H. E., Nunez, C., Cooper, J. A., Lopez-Gamundi, P., Lawlor, V. M., Lane, S. D., Treadway, M. T., & Wardle, M. C. (2021) · Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1007/s00213-021-05897-6 · Cited by 4
Leventhal, A. M., Kirkpatrick, M. G., Pester, M. S., McGeary, J. E., Swift, R. M., Sussman, S. Y., & Kahler, C. W. (2016) · Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1007/s00213-016-4462-z · Cited by 4
“Because d-amphetamine-related acute effects may be dampened during the luteal phase of the menstrual cycle (White et al. 2002), women were tested only during the follicular phase (days 2–14) unless they reported taking hormonal birth control medications.”
BackgroundImaging Substance Use and Misuse: Psychostimulants
White, T. L. (2010) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4419-6373-4_11 · Cited by 3
Self-citationHaggarty, C. J., Bershad, A. K., Kumar, M. K., Lee, R., & de Wit, H. (2024) · European Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1111/ejn.16346 · Cited by 3
“Women who were not on oral contraceptives were tested only during the follicular phase (1 – 12 days from menstruation; White et al., 2002).”
BackgroundPaxton, J. L., Vassileva, J., González, R., Maki, P. M., & Martin, E. M. (2012) · Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/13803395.2012.665436 · Cited by 2
“Several factors contribute to neurobiological mechanisms of sex differences in drug addiction, including cortisol and estrogen systems and their interactions with dopaminergic and serotonergic transmission ( Fattore et al, 2008 ; Sava, McCaffrey, & Yurgelun-Todd, 2009 ; White, Justice, & de Wit, 2002 ).”
BackgroundDifferential impact of cocaine on meal patterns in female and male rats
Wellman, P. J., Ho, D. H., & Nation, J. R. (2007) · Life Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.lfs.2007.11.004 · Cited by 3
Metadata
- Authors
- White, T. L., Justice, A. J. H., & de Wit, H.
- Affiliations
- University of Chicago (US)
- Corresponding author
- White, Tara L
- Venue
- Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behavior
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2002-11
- Volume
- 73
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 729-741
- ISSN
- 0091-3057 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2063675303
- Cited by
- 248
- References
- 52
- Citations by year
- 2026: 3 · 2025: 11 · 2024: 7 · 2023: 5 · 2022: 9 · 2021: 6 · 2020: 30 · 2019: 7 · 2018: 11 · 2017: 11 · 2016: 10 · 2015: 15 · 2014: 16 · 2013: 10 · 2012: 15
- FWCI
- 1.27
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behavior (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institutes of Health
- National Institute on Drug Abuse (R01DA002812, T32DA007255)
- National Center for Research Resources (M01RR000055)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cellular and Molecular Neuroscience › Neurotransmitter Receptor Influence on Behavior
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Endocrinology › Estrogen and related hormone effects
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neural and Behavioral Psychology Studies
- Keywords
- amphetamine, subjective effects, menstrual cycle, follicular phase, luteal phase, estrogen, progesterone, salivary estradiol, salivary progesterone, sex differences, stimulant effects, mood states, women
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Adult, Affect, Analysis of Variance, Dextroamphetamine, Double-Blind Method, Estradiol, Female, Humans, Male, Menstrual Cycle, Progesterone, Sex Characteristics, Cross-Over Studies
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