Cigarette smoking as a risk factor for coronary heart disease in women compared with men: a systematic review and meta-analysis of prospective cohort studies
Abstract
Background Prevalence of smoking is increasing in women in some populations and is a risk factor for coronary heart disease. Whether smoking confers the same excess risk of coronary heart disease for women as it does for men is unknown. Therefore, we aimed to estimate the effect of smoking on coronary heart disease in women compared with men after accounting for sex differences in other major risk factors.Methods We undertook a systematic review and meta-analysis of prospective cohort studies published between Jan 1, 1966, and Dec 31, 2010, from four online databases. We selected cohort studies that were stratified by sex with measures of relative risk (RR), and associated variability, for coronary heart disease and current smoking compared with not smoking. We pooled data with a random effects model with inverse variance weighting, and estimated RR ratios (RRRs) between men and women.Findings We reviewed 8005 abstracts and included 26 articles with data for 3,912,809 individuals and 67,075 coronary heart disease events from 86 prospective trials. In 75 cohorts (2·4 million participants) that adjusted for cardiovascular risk factors other than coronary heart disease, the pooled adjusted female-to-male RRR of smoking compared with not smoking for coronary heart disease was 1·25 (95% CI 1·12-1·39, p<0·0001). This outcome was unchanged after adjustment for potential publication bias and there was no evidence of important between-study heterogeneity (p=0·21). The RRR increased by 2% for every additional year of study follow-up (p=0·03). In pooled data from 53 studies, there was no evidence of a sex difference in the RR between participants who had previously smoked compared with those who never had (RRR 0·96, 95% CI 0·86-1·08, p=0·53).Interpretation Whether mechanisms underlying the sex difference in risk of coronary heart disease are biological or related to differences in smoking behaviour between men and women is unclear. Tobacco-control programmes should consider women, particularly in those countries where smoking among young women is increasing in prevalence.Funding None.
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A meta-analysis of 34 randomized controlled trials found that exercise-based cardiac rehabilitation after myocardial infarction was associated with lower rates of reinfarction.
“On the basis of a meta-analysis of 34 randomized controlled trials, exercise-based cardiac rehabilitation after MI was associated with lower rates of reinfarction, cardiac mortality, and overall mortality.”
From Heart Disease and Stroke Statistics—2013 Update: A Report From the American Heart Association (2013) · cites this paper as [33]
The same meta-analysis found exercise-based cardiac rehabilitation after myocardial infarction was associated with lower overall mortality.
“On the basis of a meta-analysis of 34 randomized controlled trials, exercise-based cardiac rehabilitation after MI was associated with lower rates of reinfarction, cardiac mortality, and overall mortality.”
From Heart Disease and Stroke Statistics—2013 Update: A Report From the American Heart Association (2013) · cites this paper as [33]
The same meta-analysis found exercise-based cardiac rehabilitation after myocardial infarction was associated with lower cardiac mortality.
“On the basis of a meta-analysis of 34 randomized controlled trials, exercise-based cardiac rehabilitation after MI was associated with lower rates of reinfarction, cardiac mortality, and overall mortality.”
From Heart Disease and Stroke Statistics—2013 Update: A Report From the American Heart Association (2013) · cites this paper as [33]
In the AFFIRM study, obese patients had lower all-cause mortality than normal-weight patients after multivariable adjustment over a 3-year follow-up period.
“obese patients had lower all-cause mortality (HR=0.77, P=0.01) than normal-weight patients after multivariable adjustment over a 3-year follow-up period.33”
From Heart Disease and Stroke Statistics—2013 Update: A Report From the American Heart Association (2013) · cites this paper as [33]
Metabolic syndrome has been linked to incident heart failure.
“the metabolic syndrome has been associated with incident AF32 and HF.33”
From Heart Disease and Stroke Statistics—2013 Update: A Report From the American Heart Association (2013) · cites this paper as [33]
A 21-study meta-analysis found that excess albuminuria or proteinuria independently predicts higher CVD and all-cause mortality risk.
“showed that excess albuminuria or proteinuria is independently associated with a higher risk of CVD and all-cause mortality.33”
From Heart Disease and Stroke Statistics—2013 Update: A Report From the American Heart Association (2013) · cites this paper as [33]
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- Authors
- Huxley, R. R., & Woodward, M.
- Affiliations
- The University of Sydney (AU)
- Venue
- The Lancet
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2011-10
- Volume
- 378
- Issue
- 9799
- Pages
- 1297-1305
- ISSN
- 0099-5355 (ISSN-L)
- 0140-6736
- OpenAlex
- W2109929144
- Cited by
- 906
- References
- 57
- Citations by year
- 2026: 47 · 2025: 67 · 2024: 69 · 2023: 74 · 2022: 89 · 2021: 83 · 2020: 55 · 2019: 65 · 2018: 50 · 2017: 51 · 2016: 48 · 2015: 60 · 2014: 52 · 2013: 41 · 2012: 48
- FWCI
- 5.04
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- The Lancet (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- eSpace (Curtin University) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Physiology › Smoking Behavior and Cessation
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Cardiology and Cardiovascular Medicine › Cardiovascular Health and Risk Factors
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Cardiology and Cardiovascular Medicine › Acute Myocardial Infarction Research
- Keywords
- cigarette smoking, coronary artery disease, sex differences, women, cardiovascular risk factors, smoking cessation, tobacco control
- MeSH terms
- Age Factors, Coronary Disease, Female, Humans, Male, Prospective Studies, Risk Factors, Sex Factors, Smoking, Prevalence
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