Cited by 825Race, Genetics, and SocietyRacial and Ethnic Identity ResearchHealth disparities and outcomes

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Race and health: Basic questions, emerging directions

Williams, David R.·1997·Annals of Epidemiology

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Abstract

Purpose This paper examines the scientific consensus on the conceptualization of race, identifies why health researchers should analyze racial differences in morbidity and mortality and provides guidelines for future health research that includes race. Methods Examines scientific dictionaries and reviews the social science, public health and medical literature on the role of race in health. Results First, this paper reviews the evidence suggesting that race is more of a social category than a biological one. Variation in genotypic characteristics exists, but race does not capture it. Second, since racial categories have historically represented and continue to reflect the creation of social, economic, and political disadvantage that is consequential for well-being, it is important to continue to study racial differences in health. Finally, the paper outlines directions for a more deliberate and thoughtful examination of the role of race in health. Conclusions Race is typically used in a mechanical and uncritical manner as a proxy for unmeasured biological, socioeconomic, and/or sociocultural factors. Future research should explore how clearly delineated environmental demands combine with genetic susceptibilities as well as with specified behavioral and physiological responses to increase the risk of illness for groups differentially exposed to psychosocial adversity.

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Authors: Williams, D. R.
Affiliations: University of Michigan (US)
Corresponding author: Williams, David R.
ORCID: Williams, David R.
Venue: Annals of Epidemiology
Publisher: Elsevier BV
Published: 1997-07
Volume: 7
Issue: 5
Pages: 322-333
ISSN: 1047-2797 (ISSN-L)
DOI: 10.1016/s1047-2797(97)00051-3
OpenAlex: W1977518943
Cited by: 825
References: 120
Citations by year: 2026: 11 · 2025: 23 · 2024: 25 · 2023: 35 · 2022: 31 · 2021: 31 · 2020: 26 · 2019: 23 · 2018: 20 · 2017: 61 · 2016: 26 · 2015: 24 · 2014: 21 · 2013: 27 · 2012: 25
FWCI: 2.87
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Licence: www.elsevier.com/tdm/userlicense/1.0/ (tdm)
www.elsevier.com/legal/tdmrep-license (tdm)
Locations: Annals of Epidemiology (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Topics: Social Sciences › Anthropology › Race, Genetics, and Society
Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Racial and Ethnic Identity Research
Social Sciences › Health › Health disparities and outcomes
Keywords: race, racial differences in health, social construction of race, genetic variation, socioeconomic deprivation, psychosocial adversity
MeSH terms: Culture, Female, Health Status, Humans, Male, Population Surveillance, Prejudice, Research Design, Risk Factors, Social Class, Socioeconomic Factors, United States, Racial Groups

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