CoChat
Sign Up
Cited by 825Race, Genetics, and SocietyRacial and Ethnic Identity ResearchHealth disparities and outcomes

The DOI matches its Crossref record; 118 of the 120 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.

Race and health: Basic questions, emerging directions

Williams, David R.·1997·Annals of Epidemiology
DOI 10.1016/s1047-2797(97)00051-3
Open this paper in CoChat — free account

Abstract

Purpose This paper examines the scientific consensus on the conceptualization of race, identifies why health researchers should analyze racial differences in morbidity and mortality and provides guidelines for future health research that includes race. Methods Examines scientific dictionaries and reviews the social science, public health and medical literature on the role of race in health. Results First, this paper reviews the evidence suggesting that race is more of a social category than a biological one. Variation in genotypic characteristics exists, but race does not capture it. Second, since racial categories have historically represented and continue to reflect the creation of social, economic, and political disadvantage that is consequential for well-being, it is important to continue to study racial differences in health. Finally, the paper outlines directions for a more deliberate and thoughtful examination of the role of race in health. Conclusions Race is typically used in a mechanical and uncritical manner as a proxy for unmeasured biological, socioeconomic, and/or sociocultural factors. Future research should explore how clearly delineated environmental demands combine with genetic susceptibilities as well as with specified behavioral and physiological responses to increase the risk of illness for groups differentially exposed to psychosocial adversity.

Overview

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1016/s1047-2797(97)00051-3

Cites

118 of 118 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Recomputing p-values needs the paper’s full text.

Verification

Claims the paper makes

This paper’s full text isn’t openly available, so its claims and self-check weren’t run. The registry and citation checks still apply.

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

Citations

Cites

Show all 120 references

Research works printed but not linked: 17

  1. Tucker, 1996, Testing methods of collecting racial and ethnic information: results of the current population survey supplement on race and ethnicity, Bureau of Labor Statistical Notes, 40
  2. Baldwin, 1960, Vol. 2
  3. Lieberman, 1983, Institutional and socio-cultural influences on the debate over race, Catalyst, 15, 45
  4. 1996, Ethn Dis, 6, 56
  5. Flowers Gary, 1994, New racial classifications in 2000 Census: A setback for Civil Rights enforcement?, Committee Report (Lawyers' Committee for Civil Rights Under Law), 6, 1
  6. Flowers Gary, 1994, New racial classifications in 2000 Census: A setback for Civil Rights enforcement?, Committee Report (Lawyers' Committee for Civil Rights Under Law), 6, 3
  7. Flowers Gary, 1994, New racial classifications in 2000 Census: A setback for Civil Rights enforcement?, Committee Report (Lawyers' Committee for Civil Rights Under Law), 6, 4
  8. Rosen, 1982, Intermarriage and the “Blending of exiles” in Israel, Research-in-Race-and-Ethnic-Relations, 3, 79
  9. 1996, Ethn Dis, 6, 1
  10. Giles, 1995, Race and sex differences in rates ot invasive cardiac procedures in U.S. hospitals, Arch Int Med, 155, 318, 10.1001/archinte.1995.00430030116013 · DOI
  11. 1996, Ethn Dis, 6, 30
  12. Rice, 1985, Hospital/health facilities and the Hill-Burton obligations, Urban League Review, 9, 39
  13. 1996, Ethn Dis, 6, 83
  14. 1996, Ethn Dis, 6, 109
  15. 1996, Ethn Dis, 6, 123
  16. 1996, Ethn Dis, 6, 132
  17. 1996, Eth Dis, 6, 167

Cited by

Sorted by citations

Related

See all

Metadata

Authors
Williams, D. R.
Affiliations
University of Michigan (US)
Corresponding author
Williams, David R.
ORCID
Williams, David R.
Venue
Annals of Epidemiology
Publisher
Elsevier BV
Published
1997-07
Volume
7
Issue
5
Pages
322-333
ISSN
1047-2797 (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.1016/s1047-2797(97)00051-3
OpenAlex
W1977518943
Cited by
825
References
120
Citations by year
2026: 11 · 2025: 23 · 2024: 25 · 2023: 35 · 2022: 31 · 2021: 31 · 2020: 26 · 2019: 23 · 2018: 20 · 2017: 61 · 2016: 26 · 2015: 24 · 2014: 21 · 2013: 27 · 2012: 25
FWCI
2.87
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
closed
Licence
Locations
  • Annals of Epidemiology (publishedVersion)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Anthropology › Race, Genetics, and Society
  • Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Racial and Ethnic Identity Research
  • Social Sciences › Health › Health disparities and outcomes
Keywords
race, racial differences in health, social construction of race, genetic variation, socioeconomic deprivation, psychosocial adversity
MeSH terms
Culture, Female, Health Status, Humans, Male, Population Surveillance, Prejudice, Research Design, Risk Factors, Social Class, Socioeconomic Factors, United States, Racial Groups

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›

Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review